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FFCC'S  SHORTER  COURSE 


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STUDY   AND   DRAWING 


r;    ,S.    FI-KK.V 


TH;  O    EDUCATIONAL    COMPANY 

•OKK3    -    IUCA   . 


TE 


ACHER'S  MANUAL 


FOR 


PRANG'S  SHORTER  COURSE 


IN 


FORM   STUDY   AND  DRAWING 


JOHN   S.  CLARK,   MARY   DANA   HICKS,  WALTER   S.   PERRY 


THE    PRANG    EDUCATIONAL    COMPANY 
BOSTON,    NEW    YORK,    CHICAGO 


77 


COPYRIGHT,  1888,  BY 
THE  PRANG  EDUCATIONAL  COMPANY. 


AUTHORS'    PREFACE, 


THIS  course  of  instruction  presents,  not  Form  Study  alone, 
not  Drawing  alone,  but  Form  Study  and  Drawing  as  comple- 
menting each  other,  and  as  together  furnishing  a  means  of  men- 
tal development  second  to  no  other  study,  and  indispensable 
in  the  education  of  every  child. 

FORM    STUDY    AND    DRAWING    IN    MENTAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

Recognizing  that  the  development  of  the  mental  powers  in 
their  natural  order,  leading  to  thought,  requires  not  only  Percep- 
tion, but  also  Expression,  the  authors  have  arranged  the  work  of 
this  Course  so  that  pupils  shall  first  observe  and  study  the  form 
of  models  and  objects,  and  shall  then  express  by  Drawing  what 
they  have  observed  in  the  forms  of  the  models  and  objects 
studied.  By  the  presentation  of  models  of  type  forms,  supple- 
mented by  familiar  objects,  the  senses  are  addressed,  the  atten- 
tion is  awakened,  the  powers  of  observation  are  incited,  the  mind 
is  stirred  to  action,  thought  ensues  ;  Drawing  is  then  introduced, 
not  simply  as  a  means  of  training  the  eye  and  hand,  but  as  a 
language,  by  which  the  pupil  not  only  expresses  but  impresses 
his  thought ;  still  farther,  in  the  "  Making  "  required  in  the  study 
of  the  models  and  objects,  the  ability  to  use  the  hands  is  trained 
and  encouraged,  the  creative  faculties  are  -developed,  and  thus 
Manual  Training,  with  all  its  healthful  influences,  is  begun. 
Pupils  going  through  this  course  will  not  only  be  led,  through 

iii 


iv  AUTHORS'    PREFACE. 

the  cultivation  of  their  observing  powers,  to  take  a  lively  interest 
in  the  forms  of  objects  around  them,  but  will  also  become  con- 
scious  of  the  power  of  expressing  their  ideas  of  such  forms  by 
drawing,  whether  with  regard  to  their  facts  as  seen  in  working- 
drawings,  to  their  appearance  as  seen  in  pictures,  or  to  their 
decoration ;  at  the  same  time  while  the  eye  has  been  trained  to 
observe,  and  the  hand  to  draw,  the  mind  has  been  constantly 
unfolding  through  perception,  thought,  and  expression. 

DRAWING    IN    CONNECTION    WITH    OTHER    STUDIES. 

It  is  the  hope  of  the  authors  that  the  work  in  this  course 
may  lead  teachers  and  pupils  to  a  free  use  of  Drawing  as  an  aid 
in  other  studies,  and  that  through  the  constant  connection,  both 
in  the  Manual  and  in  the  Drawing-books,  between  type  forms 
and  objects  familiar  to  all,  teachers  and  pupils  may  learn  to 
look  upon  Drawing  not  as  subsisting  in  and  for  itself  alone, 
but  as  a  very  important  and  ready  means  of  awakening  and  con- 
veying thought  in  the  other  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum. 
Drawing  should  be  as  much  at  the  command  of  every  teacher 
and  every  pupil  as  writing  and  speaking,  and  should  be  as  freely 
used. 

It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  teachers  will  seek  every  oppor- 
tunity to  carry  the  drawing  out  in  broad  applications  in  other 
studies,  and  will  encourage  pupils  to  use  it  as  a  means  of  ex- 
pression generally  in  their  school  work. 

JOHN   S.   CLARK. 
MARY   DANA  HICKS. 
WALTER   S.    PERRY. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PLAN   OF  THE    SERIES vii 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS x 


BOOK    I. 

Drill  Exercises:  Sphere,  its  Outline,  —  Circle:  Four  Views  of  a  Cube, — 
Square ;  Two  Views  of  a  Hemisphere ;  Five  Views  of  a  Circular  Tablet ; 
Apple,  —  from  the  Object;  Fan,  —  from  the  Object;  Shield;  Decorative 
Design,  —  Borders;  Quatrefoil,  —  Repetition  about  .a  Centre;  Greek 
Cross,  —  Trisection ;  Cube,  —  Pattern;  Object  based  on  a  Cube;  Leaf 
from  Nature;  Optional  Color  Exercise 

BOOK    II. 

Drill  Exercises :  Three  Views  of  a  Horizontal  Cylinder ;  Square  Prism,  — 
Two  Views;  Oblong  Tablet,  —  Five  Views;  Square  Prism, —  Pattern; 
Envelope,  —  from  the  Object ;  Natural  Objects  ;  Bowl ;  Optional  Color 
Exercise ;  Ornamental  Form ;  Ornament  derived  from  Natural  Form ; 
Decorative  Design,  —  Units,  —  Arrangement  around  a  Centre;  Boxes, — 
Two  Views,  —  Reviewed ;  Vase  Form ;  Leaf  from  Nature  ...  29 

BOOK    III. 

Drill  Exercises:  Ellipsoid,  —  Two  Views;  Ovoid,  —  Three  Views;  Tri- 
angular Prism,  —  Pattern  :  Triangular  Prism,  —  Three  Views  ;  Fruit,  — 
from  Nature;  Appearance  of  a  Cylinder  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye; 
Covered  Box,  —  its  Appearance  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye  ;  Optional 
Color  Exercise;  Ornament,  —  Rosette;  Ornament;  Decorative  Design, — 
Units,  —  Arrangement  about  a  Centre;  Toy  House,  —  Three  Views; 
Group  of  Objects ;  Decorative  Design,  —  Rosette  from  a  Flower  Form  55 


VI  CONTENTS. 


BOOK    IV. 

PAGE 

Drill  Exercises:  Cube,  Cylinder,  and  Cone,  —  Two  Views;  Three  Views  of 
a  Book,  —  from  a  Book;  Constructive  Design,  —  Vase  Form;  Tumbler, — 
Flower-Pot,  —  Facts  and  Appearance ;  Rectangular  Object  in  front  of  and 
below  the  Level  of  the  Eye ;  Book  Opened,  —  In  front  of  and  below  the 
Level  of  the  Eye ;  Optional  Color  Exercises ;  Border  of  Reversed  and 
Spiral  Curves;  Conventionalized  Ivy  Leaf,  —  Twelfth  Century  Ornament ; 
Decorative  Design  from  the  Bunchberry;  Cylinder  and  Square  Prism 
combined,  —  Drawing  the  Facts,  —  Three  Views;  Cylinder  and  Square 
Prism,  —  Appearance  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye;  Natural  Growth, — 
From  Nature 89 


BOOK    V. 

Drill  Exercises:  Cube  facing,  —  Cube  turned,  —  Square  Pyramid  Turned; 
Writing-Desk,  —  Three  Views,  —  Dimension  Lines;  Hexagonal  Prism, — 
Three  Views ;  Square  Prism  and  Cube  turned  at  an  angle  of  45  Degrees, — 
Appearance  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye ;  Square  Plinth  turned  at  an  angle 
of  45°,  —  Appearance  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye ;  Rectangular  Object 
turned,  —  Appearance  below  the  Level  of  the  Eye ;  Optional  Color  Exer- 
cises ;  Ornament,  —  Fleur-de-lis ;  Decorative  Design,  —  Modification  of 
Units;  Decorative  Design, — Border;  Working-Drawing,  —  Common  Ob- 
ject; Group  of  Objects,  —  Appearance;  Decorative  Design, —  From 
Natural  Form  .  .  .  ,  .  .  .  „  „  .  .  „  119 

APPENDIX.    COLOR  141 


PLAN   OF  THE   SERIES. 


THIS  series  comprises  five  drawing-books,  accompanied  by  a  manual, 
which  covers  the  work  of  the  five  books.  Each  book  contains 

DRILL  PAGES  FOR  EXECUTION. 

PRACTICE  PAGES  FOR  DRAWING  EXERCISES. 
DRAWING  EXERCISES. 

PAGES  FOR  FOLDING,  CUTTING,  AND  MAKING. 

The  books  are  planned  with  the  idea  of  presenting  in  a  most  compact  form 
a  drawing-book  with  paper  for  practice-drawing,  folding,  and  making,  all 
under  one  cover. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

Each  drawing  exercise  or  page  is  accompanied  by  a  practice  page 
facing  it.  The  practice  pages  are  lettered  ;  the  drawing  pages  are  num- 
bered. Of  necessity  the  practice  page  sometimes  precedes  and  some- 
times follows  the  drawing  page ;  for  example,  Ex.  I.  on  page  i  of  the 
drawing-book  is  preceded  by  the  practice  page  D;  Ex.  II.  on  page  2  is 
followed^  the  practice  page  E.  In  either  case  the  practice  page  faces 
the  drawing  page,  and  is  of  course  to  be  used  before  the  drawing  page 
to  which  it  belongs. 

The  practice  pages  are  perforated  near  the  inner  edge,  so  that  after 
being  used  as  practice  pages  they  may  be  readily  detached,  leaving  in 
the  book  only  the  better  work  of  the  drawing  pages. 

ADVANTAGES. 

The  advantages  of  the  arrangement  of  the  books  are  noted  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


Vlll  PLAN   OF    THE    SERIES. 

1.  Practice  pages  and  drawing  pages  being  within  one  cover,  the  trouble  in 
the  use  and  the  care  of  two  books  is  obviated. 

2.  The  practice  page,  being  arranged  to  face  the  drawing  page  to  which  it 
belongs,  is  always  ready  for  use  at  the  proper  time. 

3.  The  practice  pages,  being  perforated  near  the  inner  edge,  can,  after  every 
use  is  made  of  them  which  the  Manual  requires,  be  readily  removed,  leaving 
the  drawing-book  to  show  the  result  of  the  pupil's  practice  and  study. 

4.  Inasmuch  as  the  pupils  know  that  the  practice  pages  are  to  be  removed, 
and  are  not  to  form  part  of  the  drawing-book  proper,  they  will  be  more  inclined 
to  work  freely  and  to  express  their  own  thoughts.     Pupils  should  never  be 
encouraged  to  work  carelessly,  but  freedom  of  movement  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  the  timid  child  is  not  inclined  to  work  freely  upon  the  page  of 
his  drawing-book  if  he  does  not  feel  very  sure  of  what  he  is  to  express  and  the 
manner  of  expressing  it.     This  confidence  is  to  be  gained  by  working  upon 
the  practice  pages  of  this  series  of  books. 

5.  "Making"  in  connection  with  Form  Study  and  Drawing  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.     Many  of  the  perforated  pages  are  to  be  used  for  making  the 
various  forms  suggested,  while  upon  some  of  the  pages  patterns  are  printed 
for  the  pupils  to  cut  out  and  fold  to  make  familiar  forms.     In  these  exer- 
cises a  beginning  is  made  in  Manual  Training.     The  forms  thus  made  are 
to  be  used  as  objects  of  study  and  as  models  for  drawing. 

6.  At  the  beginning  of  the  book  and  elsewhere,  certain  pages  are  given  to 
drill  exercises,  which  while  taking  but  little  time  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance in  producing  freedom  of  movement  and  confidence  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil. 

NATURE    OF    THE    WORK. 

The  exercises  require,  — 

DRAWING  FROM  MODELS  AND  OBJECTS. 
FROM   DICTATION. 

FROM  WELL-CHOSEN  COPIES. 
FROM  MEMORY. 

ORIGINAL  DESIGN. 

MAKING  MODELS  AND  OBJECTS. 

Throughout  the  series  the  work  is  based  upon  the  study  of  models, 
common  objects,  and  natural  forms.  From  the  first  pupils  learn  to 
draw  from  real  objects  and  not  from  copies  of  objects.  As  the  sense 


PLAN   OF    THE    SERIES.  IX 

of  touch  furnishes  one  of  the  readiest  means  of  ascertaining  the  form  of 
an  object,  the  lessons  are  so  planned  as  to  require  handling  of  the 
models  and  objects  by  the  pupils. 

The  work  is  strictly  educational,  —  it  deals  with  the  mind ;  through 
the  study  of  concrete  objects,  thoughts  are  awakened  which  the  hand 
and  eye  are  trained  to  express. 

CHARACTER    OF    LINE    IN    DRAWING. 

Particular  attention  is  requested  to  the  character  of  the  lines  in  the 
drawing-books.  They  are  broad,  soft,  gray  lines,  like  pencil  lines. 
They  furnish  to  pupils  models  of  the  lines  desired  from  them,  —  lines 
showing  freedom  of  movement,  ready  handling  and  varying  expression. 
Such  lines  require  a  soft  pencil,  —  one  not  harder  than  an  M  grade. 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 


IN  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  Form,  there  are  three  stages :  Percep- 
tion, Thought,  Expression.  Observation  of  Form  requires  both  Per- 
ception and  Thought.  Expression  of  Form  must  of  necessity  be 
preceded  by  Observation.  These  general  directions  will  therefore  be 
classed  under  the  two  heads:  Observation  of  Form  and  Expression 
of  Form. 

OBSERVATION    OF    FORM. 

Models  and  Objects.  —  The  term  Form  will  be  used  in  this  manual  as  in- 
cluding three  dimensions,  while  Figure  or  Shape  will  be  used  as  referring 
to  only  two  dimensions.  Both  Form  and  Shape  should  be  observed  first 
in  concrete  objects.  Hence  the  exercises  in  this  series  of  books  are  based 
on  the  use  of  models  and  objects.  The  models  are  of  the  simple  type 
forms,  and  are  in  both  teacher's  and  pupils'  sizes. 

For  the  complete  list  see  description  at  the  end  of  the  book.*  The  objects 
chosen  are  based  on  type  forms,  and  are  such  as  can  be  procured  with 
very  little  trouble. 

Every  drawing  exercise  should  begin  with  Observation  of  the  models  or 
objects  by  the  pupils.  The  directions  under  this  head  in  each  exercise 
are  given  to  indicate  to  the  teacher  the  manner  in  w*hich  the  pupils  should 
be  led  to  observe  (that  is,  to  perceive  and  to  think  about)  the  form  of 
Models  and  Objects. 

Technical  terms,  which  must  of  course  be  given  by  the  teacher,  should  always 
follow,  not  precede,  the  observation  of  the  form  or  figure  to  which  the 
term  applies. 

*  Where  it  is  practicable,  it  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  have  the  pupils  well  supplied  with  models, 
BO  that  each  pupil  mafy  observe  the  model  for  himself  through  the  hand  by  handling,  placing,  moving, 
etc.,  as  well  as  by  the  eye. 
X 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS.  XI 

Judgment  of  Size  and  Proportion.  —  The  ability  to  judge  correctly  of  size 
and  proportion  is  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  carefully  cultivated 
throughout  all  form  study.  An  inch  (generally  expressed  i")  should  be 
made  the  standard  at  first,  later  a  foot  (generally  expressed  i')  may  be 
introduced,  and  dimensions  may  be  given  in  feet  and  inches.  The  teacher 
should  in  some  way  introduce  into  every  exercise,  whether  from  an  object 
or  from  a  copy,  questions  leading  to  judgment  of  definite  length  in  inches, 
and  also  to  judgment  of  the  proportion  of  models,  objects,  and  figures,  by 
the  consideration  of  the  relative  length  of  edges,  of  diameters,  of  profiles, 
and  of  lines. 

EXPRESSION    OF    FORM. 

Value  and  Method.  —  Expression  of  form  is  doubly  valuable,  —  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  pupil,  as  a  means  of  completing  the  study  of  the  form;  on 
the  other  hand  to  the  teacher,  as  showing  to  what  degree  the  pupil  has 
received  the  idea  of  a  form.  There  are  three  ways  by  which  ideas  of 
form  can  be  expressed :  by  Making,  by  Drawing,  by  Language. 

Making.  —  Pupils  can  express  their  ideas  of  the  form  of  a  model  or  object 
most  completely  by  making  the  model  or  object;  therefore,  throughout  this 
series,  frequent  exercises  are  given  in  making  objects  as  a  part  of  the 
regular  work.  .  Modeling  in  clay  is  an  admirable  means  of  expression,  and 
is  not  difficult  as  a  class  exercise.  Directions  for  the  management  of  clay 
can  be  found  in  the  Primary  Manual,  called  "  The  Use  of  Models,"  pub- 
lished by  The  Prang  Educational  Company.  Teachers  should  encourage 
children  in  "  making  "  simple  objects  in  clay,  paper,  cloth,  cardboard,  wood, 
etc. 

Cutting.  —  This  exercise  has  been  successfully  introduced  into  many  schools. 
Its  object  is,  that  children  may  learn  to  observe  figures,  not  lines ;  to  give 
skill  in  using  something  besides  a  pencil;  to  learn  by  doing;  when  colored 
paper  is  used,  to  aid  in  the  study  of  color;  to  open  new  lines  of  thought; 
to  create  interest ;  in  short,  to  more  fully  educate  the  child.  In  some  of 
the  exercises  it  is  directed  that  figures  or  designs  cut  from  paper  be  pasted 
upon  the  page  of  the  drawing-book.  This  gives  variety  to  the  work.  TQ 
carry  it  out,  the  teacher  has  simply  to  pass  about  the  room  with  a  mucilage, 
brush  and  touch  each  book  in  one  place,  near  the  centre  of  the  space  the 
figure  or  design  is  to  occupy;  the  pupil  will  then  lay  the  design  upon  the 
page  and  press  it  down.  In  no  case  should  a  design  or  a  piece  of  papei 
be  pasted  all  over  the  back. 


xii  GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 

Drawing.  —  Training  in  position,  pencil-holding,  movement,  and  drawing,  as 
indicated  in  the  following  directions,  must  be  systematically  pursued. 

FREEDOM  OF  MOVEMENT.  —  The  importance  of  freedom  of  movement 
in  drawing  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  produces  lightness  of  touch, 
quickness  in  execution,  begets  confidence  in  one's  ability  to  draw,  and 
when  acquired  by  a  class  of  pupils,  materially  lessens  the  work  of  the 
teacher.  Experience  among  thousands  of  pupils  shows  conclusively,  that 
too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  necessity  for  the  early  develop- 
ment of  freedom  of  movement.  The  ability  to  sketch  rapidly  and  easily 
an  illustration  of  a  thought  awakened  in  the  mind  cannot  be  attained 
without  it. 

A  set  of  drawing-books,  finished  as  draughtsmen  would  finish  them, 
rarely  indicate  the  best  teaching.  It  is  of  far  more:  importance  that  the 
child  should  have  opportunity  to  work  for  freedom  of  movement  than 
for  straightness  of  line. 

POSITION.  —  The  children  should  sit  on  the  left  half  of  the  seat  facing 
the  desk.  They  should  sit  erect,  feet  flat  on  the  floor,  the  eyes  never 
nearer  the  paper  than  is  necessary  for  a  clear  view  of  the  lines.  They 
should  not  bend  forward  unnecessarily,  and  should  learn  to  work  at  a 
distance. 

BOOK.  —  The  book  should  be  directly  in  front  of  pupil,  pushed  back  on  the 
desk,  the  long  edges  parallel  to  the  long,  edges  of  the  desk.  NEVER 
TURN  THE  BOOK.  To  guard  against  undue  rubbing  or  offsetting  of  the 
lines,  and  also  to  protect  the  page  from  any  moisture  of  the  hand,  pupils 
should  use  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  the  size  of  the  page.  While  neatness 
in  work  should  always  be  insisted  on,  bold  freehand  work  should  never  be 
sacrificed  for  immaculate  pages  in  the  books. 

PENCIL.  —  The  pencil  should  be  of  medium  grade  (Prang's  School  Pencil  M 
is  the  proper  grade)  for  all  freehand  work.  It  should  be  sharpened  to 
a  round  but  quite  blunt  point,  and  used  for  drawing  only.  When  the 
pencil  is  worn  away  it  should  be  lengthened  by  a  pencil-holder.  Short 
pencils  should  not  be  used. 

The  pencil  should  be  held  lightly  three  or  four 
inches  from  the  point,  so  that  it  will  have  the  sup- 
port of  the  middle  finger  and  be  held  by  the  thumb 
and  forefinger.  Pencil-holding  should  be  practiced 
by  itself  before  beginning  to  draw. 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 


Xlll 


PENCIL.  —  The  pencil  should  always  be  held  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
to  be  drawn  when  drawing  straight  lines,  and  at  an  angle  of  about  30° 
to  the  paper. 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3- 


Fig.  4- 


DRAWING.  —  Vertical  lines  should  be  drawn  from  top  to  bottom ;  hori- 
zontal lines  from  left  to  right;  oblique  lines,  as  a  rule,  from  top  to 
bottom. 

Lines  at  the  left  and  top  should  be  drawn,  first  as  a  rule ;  though  all 
parallel  lines  should  be  drawn  in  succession  when  practicable. 


Fig.  6. 


Circles  and  vertical  ellipses  should  be  drawn  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
imaginary  vertical  diameter,  holding  the  pencil  from  left  to  rignt  all 
the  time.  In  drawing  horizontal  ellipses  the  pencil  should  be  held 
as  for  a  horizontal  line.  Circles,  ellipses,  and  ovals  should  be  sketched 
with  one  sweep  of  the  pencil. 

Lines  should  "be  drawn  continuously,  without  stopping  or  retracing. 

All  curved  lines,  no  matter  how  short,  should  be  practiced  over  tha 
printed  copy  before  drawing. 


XIV  GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 

ERASING.  —  All  figures  should  be  sketched  with  free  movement  without  the 
use  of  the  eraser.  Pupils  should  erase  together  as  a  class,  and  should  not 
be  allowed  to  use  the  eraser  when  lining-in. 

BLACKBOARD.  —  Every  opportunity  possible  for  blackboard  work  should 
be  given  to  the  pupils. 

Color.  —  The  use  of  color  in  the  study  of  form  will  be  found  of  great  value. 
Color  exercises  are  therefore  suggested  for  each  book.  The  primary, 
secondary,  and  tertiary  pigment  colors  and  their  combinations  are  pre- 
sented in  their  order  and  with  reference  to  their  relative  values. 


BOOK    I. 


Models. 

SOLIDS :  Sphere,  Hemisphere,  Cube. 
TABLETS:  Circle,  Semicircle,  Square. 
NATURAL  FORMS :  Apple,  Plantain  Leaf. 
OBJECTS :  Fan,  Shield,  Box. 

Decorative    Forms. 

QUATREFOIL,   GREEK   CROSS,   ORIGINAL  ARRANGEMENTS. 

Making. 

TABLET-LAYING :  Borders. 
STICK-LAYING :  Angles,  Borders. 

FBOM  A  PATTERN:  j  Sphere   Cube,  Bo*. 

1  Circle,  Square,  Cross. 

Drawing. 

PENCIL-HOLDING,   MOVEMENT,   LIGHT  LINES,   ERASING,   BROAD 

GRAY  LINES. 

Language. 

(See  page  28.) 

NAMES  OF  MODELS  AND  DECORATIVE  FORMS  AND  THEIR  DETAILS. 
TERMS    OF    LOCATION,    DIRECTION,    POSITION,    SEEING, 
LENGTH,    DIVISION,    ARRANGEMENT. 

Color. 

THE   THREE   PRIMARY   PIGMENT    COLORS- 


,  .  r ,  ,TEA  CJI&KS    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  r. 


DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  A. 

OBJECT.    Practice   for   proper   position  of  pupil  and  of  paper;   proper  pencil-holding; 
free  arm  movement  from  left  to  right,  from  top  to  bottom,  and  from  corner  to  corner. 

Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Before  beginning  work  in  the  book, 
show  pupils  how  to  hold  their  pencils  for  free  movement  and  draw^ 
ing.  Give  practice  in  movement  with  the  pencil  from  left  to  right,  and 
see  \h&  each  pupil  holds  the  pencil  properly  (see  Fig.  i,  p.  xiii),  —  the 
same  for  movement  from  top  to  bottom  (see  Fig.  2,  p.  xiii),  —  and 
from  corner  to  corner  (see  Figs.  3  and  4,  p.  xiii).  For  movement  and 
for  drawing  count  i,  2,  3,  to  keep  the  children  together. 


Practice.  —  Open  your  book  at  page  A,  and" place  it  well  back  on  the  desk.  Find 
and  read  the  points  at  tke  left  of  the  page  (o,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  /).^Hbw  far  apart 
are  they?  ;(I4.<iecessaT-^i|M^  teacher  gives  the  distance,  one  iftjk.)  <$ 

Sit  up  straight,  and  with  peiicr^m'hand,  held  properly,  begin  at  point  a,  and  move  the 
harfd  acrq^s  the  *pa"ge  (without  drawing  and  with  the  whole  arm  movement)  at 
least  three  times ;  the^n*^|rjjw  lightly  across  the  page  with  one  continuous 
movement.  Repeat  the-4»>Jprnent  and  drawing,  remembering  to  hold  the  pencil 
properly  and  to  practice-  the  movement  before  drawing.  No  erasing. 

Read  the  points  at  the  top  of  the  page  (o,  /,  2,  3,  etc.].  How  far  apart  are 
they  ?  Draw  from  these  points  down  the  page,  remembering  pencil-holding  and 
movement.  Draw  also  from  the  upper  left  to  the  lower  right  corner,  and  from 
the  upper  right  to  the  lower  left  corner,  with  proper  pencil-holding  and  move- 
ment. Draw  each  line  with  one  continuous  movement.  No  erasing. 


BOOK    I.] 


DRILL    EXERCISES. 


Drawing-Book,  page  B. 

OBJECT.    Practice  in  direction  from  left  to  right,  from  top  to  bottom;  drawing  from 
point  to  point  with  free  arm  movement. 


Practice. —  On  the  left  half  of  the  page  draw  lines  from  left  to  right,  on  the  right  half, 
from  top  to  bottom,  connecting  the  points  given.  Practice  first  pencil-holding, 
then  movement,  then  drawing,  as  for  page  A.  No  erasing. 

Drawing-Boo^,  page  C. 
OBJECT.    Free  arm  movement,  and  drawing  round  and  round. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Give  directions  for  holding  the  pencil  for 
movement  round  and  round  (see  Fig.  5,  p.  xiii).  The  pencil  must  be 
held  the  same  throughout  the  ma&ernent.  Count  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 


D.  B.,  page  A,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  C,  completed. 


Practice.  —  Practice  movement  with  proper  pencil-holding  over  the  first  printed 
circle  without  touching  it,  in  the  order  i,  2,  3,  4,  then  draw  round  and  round 
on  the  printed  circle.  Repeat  with  the  other  circles.  No  erasing. 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  i. 


EXERCISE    I. —  Sphere.  — Its  Outline.  — Circle. 

MODELS  :    Sphere,  Circle. 
OBJECT.    To  study  the  form  of  a  sphere,  to  see  its  outline,  and  to  draw  its  outline. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Handle  and  grasp  the  model; 
how  does  it  feel  ?     (The   teacher  gives   the  name  sphere.) 


How  much  of  the  sphere  can  you  see  without  turning  it?  Show 
with  the  fingers,  and  tell  what  part  can  be^een,  and  what  part  cannot 
be  seen.  (The  part  toward  you,  and  the  part  aw^y.  from  you.) 

Trace  with  the  fingers  on-  the  .  sphere  the  Outline  of  the  part  that 
can  be  seen  ;  trace  the  outline  vni  the  air.  All  pupils  trace  the  outline 
in  the  air  ;  what  is  the  shape  of  the  outline  ?  {Round.  )  (The  teacher 
gives  the  name  circle.) 

Find  a  tablet  having  the  shape  of  a  circle,  among  several  tablets 
of  different  shapes. 


D.  B., 


—  Practice  page  for  Ex.  I. 


Practice.  —  Draw  with  free  arm 


O 


O 


O 


D.  B.,  page  D,  completed. 


movement,  a  line  from  c  across  the  page,  and 
lines  from  3  and  6  down  the  page,  dividing  it 
into  six  parts. 

In  the  upper  left-hand  space,  beginning  at  i,  and 
moving  in  the  direction  i,  2,  3,  4,  i,  2,  etc. 
(see  D.  B.,  page  i),  practice  the  movement  for 
a  circle,  as  large  as  the  space  will  allow,  then 
draw  a  circle  with  one  sweep ;  repeat  in  the 
other  spaces.  Pay  special  attention  to  pencil- 
holding,  always  pointing  the  pencil  toward  the 
left.  No  erasing. 


BOOK    1.] 


SPHERE.  —  ITS   OUTLINE.  —  CIRCLE. 


D.  B.,  page  1.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  a  Sphere. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  do  the  pictures  in 
the  drawing-book  represent  ?  How  are  the  objects  represented  like 
the  sphere  ?  How  are  they  unlike  the  sphere  ?  How  large  is  the 
picture  of  the  sphere  ?  of  the  ball  ?  of  the  orange  ? 


Can  you  mention  other  objects  spherical  in  form,  —  objects  in  the 
room,  objects  in  your  pockets,  objects  that  you  can  remember? 
Can  any  one  make  a  sphere  at  home  ? 

Drawing.  —  Outline  of  a  sphere  represented  in  the  drawing-book  by  Fig.  i.  Draw 
lightly  an  outline  of  a  sphere,  at  the  right,  of  the  same  size. 

In  drawing  the  outline,  practice  movement  first  on  the  printed  copy,  then  over 
the  given  points  ;  then  draw  lightly  the  circle  at  one  sweep.  Correct  the  circle, 
erase  errors,  and  complete  the  outline  with  a  clear,  soft,  broad,  gray  line. 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  i. 


EXERCISE   II.  —  Four  Views  of   a  Cube.  —  Outlines  of   Different 
Faces.  —  Square. 

MODELS  :  Sphere,  Cube,  Square. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  general  form  of  a  cube,  its  faces,  edges,  and  corners ;  to  see  and 
to  draw  the  outlines  of  different  faces. 

Study  of  the  Models  by  the  Pupils.  — What  would  you  call  the 
new  model  ?  (A  block)  Hold  the  sphere  in  one  hand,  and  the  block  in 
the  other;  how  does  the  block  feel?  (Sharp,  pointed)  What  do  you 
feel  ?  (Corners,  edges.)  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  cube.) 


Hold  the  cube  in  the  right  hand,  strike  it  gently  in  the  palm  of  the 
left,  and  vice  versa.  Pass  the  fingers  over  the  top  of  the  cube,  showing 
how  far  it  extends ;  pass  the  fingers  over  the  front,  showing  how  far  it 
extends.  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  face.) 

How  many  faces  has  a  cube  ?  how  many  edges  ?  how  many  corners  ? 
How  many  faces  of  the  cube  can  you  see  without  turning  the  cube  ? 
Hold  the  cube  so  as  to  see  but  one  face  ;  but  two  faces,  three  faces. 


i  ) 


Find   upright  faces,  called   vertical  faces.      Find  level  faces,   called 
horizontal  faces.     Find  horizontal  and  vertical  faces  and  edges.     Are 


BOOK    I.] 


FOUR    VIEWS   OF  A    CUBE,   ETC. 


the  edges  of  the  same  length  ?  (The  edges  are  equal}  How  long  are 
they  ? 

Hold  the  model  so  as  to  see  but  one  face ;  what  is  the  shape  of  the 
face?  (Square.)  Find  a  tablet  of  this  shape. 

Observe  the  front  face  of  the  cube,  move  the  fingers  on  the  left  and 
right  edges  ;  what  is  the  direction  ?  (From  top  to  bottom,  vertical}  All 
trace  the  direction  in  the  air.  Observe  and  trace  the  horizontal  edges. 

D.  B.,  page  E. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  II. 

OBJECT.    To  obtain  the  pupil's  idea  of  the  front  face  of  a  cube. 

Practice.  —  Draw  upon  this  page  an  outline  of  the  front  face  of  the  cube,  without 
further  direction,  making  a  large  drawing.    No  erasing.    What  have  you  drawn  ? 

D.  B.t  page  2.  —  Drawing  the  outlines  of  different  faces  of  a  Cube. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  name  of  the 
model?  Open  the  books.  What  do  the  pictures  represent? 

Mention  objects  like  a  cube  ?  Can  any  one  make  a  cube,  or  an 
object  like  a  cube  ?  Point  out  the  front  face  of  the  cube ;  what  is  its 
shape  ?  the  left  face,  its  shape  ?  the  top  and  right  faces,  their  shape  ? 


Drawing.  —  The  front  face  of  a  cube  is  given  in  the  drawing-book.     Draw  the  left, 
(top,  and  right  faces,  using  the  angles  given.     In    all  figures  draw  by  parallels 

when  possible.     Therefore  the  general  order 

in  drawing  a  square  is,  —  left  side,  right  side, 

upper  side,  lower  side. 
This  order  can    be  followed    readily   in    drawing 

the  left  face,  as  the  angles  are  all  given.     Be- 
fore  beginning   to   draw    the    top   and    right 

faces,  place  a  point  for  the  upper  right  hand 

corner  of  each  square. 


D.  B.,  page  2,   completed. 


8 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  i. 


EXERCISE  III.— Two  Views  of  a  Hemisphere.— Top  View,  Front  View. 

MODELS :  Sphere,  Cube,  Hemisphere,  Semicircle. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  form  of  a  hemisphere ;  to  see  and  to  draw  the  outline  of  its  top 
view,  of  its  front  view. 


Study  of  the  Hemisphere  by  Pupils. — How  many  faces  has 
this  model?  (Two.)  How  do  they  differ?  (One  is  rounding;  one  is 
flat?)  (The  teacher  gives  the  word  plane,  the 
carpenter's  plane,  and  the  surface  which  it 
makes,  being  used  as  illustrations.)  What  is 
the  model  like?  (Half  a  sphere.)  (The 
teacher  gives  the  name  hemisphere.) 
(View  from  the  window  noticed ;  beautiful  view  recalled ;  out-door 
views  mentioned.)  What  view  have  you  in  the  school-room  ?  (Indoor 
view,  schoolroom  view)  Place  the  plane  face  of  the  hemisphere  on  a 
book,  and  look  directly  down  upon  it.  WThat  part  of  the  hemisphere  is 
in  view  ?  (The  top)  W7hat  view  of  the  hemisphere  have  you  ?  (Top 
view.)  What  is  the  shape  of  the  top  view?  (Circle)  (Front  view, 
and  its  shape  semicircle,  brought  out  in  the  same  way.)  Find  a 
tablet  having  the  shape  of  the  front  view. 

(Curved  and  straight  edge  brought  out  through  movement  on  the 
edges  of  the  hemisphere  and  cube  and  of  the  semicircle.)  Draw  the 
top  view  and  the  front  view  of  the  hemisphere  on  the  blackboard. 
See  illustration,  p.  u.  What  figures  have  you  made?  What  kinds 
of  lines  are  there  in  the  front  view?  (Curved  and  straight.) 


BOOK  i.j  TWO    VIEWS   OF  A   HEMISPHERE.  9 

D.  B.,  page  F,  left  h alf.—  Practice  for  Ex.  III. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  The  top  view  of  a  hemi- 
sphere is  given,  the  front  view  is  required  below.  How  wide  is  the  top 
view?  (Three  inches^)  How  wide  is  the  front  view?  (As  wide  as  the 
top  view.)  How  high?  (Half  as  high  as  wide.)  How  many  inches? 

Bisecting.  —  Turn  to  a  blank  page  in  the  middle  of  the  drawing- 
•book.  Fold  the  left  edge  over  to  meet  the  perforations.  Crease  the 
fold  firmly,  and  detach  carefully  on  the  fold.  (The  teacher  gives  the 
term  bisect,  to  divide  into  two  equal  parts.)  Bisect  the  edges  of 
the  part  detached  in  the  same  way  until  the  term  is  well  understood. 

Practice. —  Point  i  is  given  below  the  top  view;  place  a  point  at  

the   right  to  show  the  width  of  the  front  view ;  practice  the        f              >. 
movement  and  draw  a  horizontal  for  the  base  of  the  semicircle.     1 1 \ 

Place  a  point  in  the  middle  of  the  horizontal  (bisect  it) ;  then  place  a  point  as  far 
above  the  point  of  bisection  as  half  the  length  of  the  line  for  the  altitude  of 
the  curve.  Beginning  at  i,  practice  movement  for  a  semicircle,  and  draw  it. 
No  erasing. 

See  page  n  for  the  illustrations  of  D.  B.,  pp.  p  and  3  completed. 

D.  B.,  page  3.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  the  front  view  of  the  Hemi- 
sphere. 


Observation  of  Sphere,  Cube,  and  Hemisphere  by  Pupils.— 

What  are  the  names  of  the  models  ?  What  do  the  pictures  in  the  draw- 
ing-book represent  ?  Can  you  mention  objects  like  a  hemisphere  ?  Can 
any  one  make  and  bring  to  school  an  object  like  a  hemisphere  ?  Look 
down  on  the  model  to  get  a  top  view;  what  is  its  shape?  Observe 
the  front  view  in  the  same  manner. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  top  view  through  the  given  points,  first  practicing  for  move- 
ment; draw  the  front  view  below  the  top  view,  using  the  given  points. 


10 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


EXERCISE    IV.  — Circular  Tablet.  — Five  Views. 

MODEL :  Circular  Tablet. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  shape  of  a  circular  tablet  — to  cut  it  out— to  see  and  to  draw  its 
face  view,  its  edge  view. 


Making  and  Studying  the  Model  by  the  Pupils.  —  Fold  page 
F  vertically  through  the  middle,  and  detach  carefully  the  left  half  of  the 
page.  Cut  out  the  circle  printed  on  the  part  detached.* 


Find  the  face  of  the  paper  tablet,  find  its  edge.    Hold  the  tablet  facing 
you ;  what  is  its  shape  ?     What  would  you  draw  for  the  outline  ? 

*  If  the  pupils  do  not  have  scissors  in  school,  this  part  of  the  exercise  should  be  done  previous  to  the 
lesson,  the  cutting  being  done  at  home. 


BOOK    I.] 


CIRCULAR    TABLET.  — FIVE    VIEWS. 


II 


Look  at  the  edge  in  various  parts  to  see  if  the  paper  is  thick  or  thin, — 
if  it  has  the  same  thickness  everywhere ;  hold  it  so  as  to  look  at  the 
edge  from  the  top,  from  the  bottom,  from  the  left,  from  the  right ; 
draw  on  the  board  the  face  view  of  the  tablet,  and  its  top,  bottom,  left, 
and  right  edge  views.  All  this  work  is  intended  for  pupils. 

Fold  the  nearer  edge  of  the  circle  over  to  the  farther  edge  and  crease 
the  fold;  unfold,  —  where  is  the  crease?  (From  one  side  to  the  other, 
through  the  middled)  (The  teacher  gives  the  names  diameter ,  the  meas- 
ure through,  and  centre.) 


D.  B.,  page  F,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  3,  completed. 


Turn  the  circle  around  and  fold  so  that  the  nearer  end  of  the  diameter 
just  touches  the  farther  end ;  crease,  unfold.  What  have  you  ?  (A  circh 
and  two  diameters,  as  on  page  F  of  the  drawing-book^)  How  long  are  the 
diameters  ?  (Three  inchest) 

D.    B.,  page    F.— Practice  page  for  Ex.  IV. 

Practice.  —  The  face  view  of  a  circular  tablet  is  printed,  and  points  are  given  for  the 
top  and  left-edge  views.  How  long  should  the  bottom  and  right  edge  views  be  ? 
Draw  the  top,  bottom,  left,  and  right  edge  views.  No  erasing. 

D,  B.,  page  3.  —  Drawing  the  edge  views  of  a  Circular  Tablet. 

Cutting  the  Tablet.  —  Before  drawing  the  edge  views,  cut  a  circle 
of  paper  (blue  if  possible)  at  home  or  at  school,  and  paste  it  in  the 
drawing-book  to  cover  the  printed  circle. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  top  view,  bottom  view,  left  edge  view,  right  edge  view,  using 
the  points  given. 


12 


•  TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  i. 


EXERCISE    V.- Apple,   from  the  Object. 

MODELS:   Sphere,  apple;  each  pupil  brings  an  apple,  irregular  in  form. 

OBJECT.    To  study  a  familiar  object  of  spherical  form ;  to  see  and  to  draw  the  outlines 
of  an  apple;  to  line  in  the  outlines. 


Study  of  the  Models  by  Pupils.  —  Span  the  sphere  from  top 
to  bottom  and  from  left  to  right ;  are  the  distances  the  same  ?  How 
do  they  compare  ?  Span  the  apple  from  top  to  bottom,  from  left 
to  right.  How  do  the  distances  compare  ?  Hold  the  apple  on  a  level 
with  the  eyes  and  trace  the  outline  on  the  apple  with  the  fingers, 
following  the  depression  at  the  stem  and  at  the  blossom. 


Place  a  pencil  on  the  sphere  (the  pencil  touches  at  but  one  point). 
Place  a  pencil  across  the  top  of  the  apple;  notice  where  it  touches 
and  whether  it  slants;  observe  the  bottom  and  the  sides  in  a  similar 
way. 


BOOK  i.]  APPLE,  FROM  THE   OBJECT.  13 

D.  B.,  page   G>— •  Practice  page  for  Ex.  V. 

Practice.  —  Make  on  the  left  half  of  the  page  a  full  size  drawing  of  the  apple 
just  studied,  blocking  it  in,  as  in  Figs.  2-5.  Span  the  apple  for  height  and 
width;  draw  light  lines  to  show  height,  as  in  i,  2,  Fig.  2,  then  light  lines  to 
show  the  width,  as  3,  4,  greater  or  less  than  the  height  as  the  case  may  be. 

Draw  straight  lines  for  the  shoulders  (see  Fig.  3),  slant  the  sides  if  necessary  and 
draw  straight  lines  for  the  lower  part  of  the  sides.  Draw  straight  lines  for  the 
stem  and  the  depression  (see  Fig.  4),  always  drawing  two  lines  to  show  the  width 
of  the  stem.  Draw  the  curves  of  the  apple  over  the  straight  lines.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Place  the  apple  on  a  book,  held  slightly  below  the  level  the  eye,  and  look  at  the  far- 
ther edge  of  the  book ;  how  much  of  it  can  you  see  ?  Imagine  that  you  can  see 
the  whole  of  the  edge ;  how  much  of  the  apple  would  appear  below  the  edge  ? 
Draw  a  line  for  the  edge  as  you  see  it.  This  is  called  the  table  line.  No 
erasing. 

On  the  right  half,  block  in  the  same  apple  again.  Erase  wrong  and  unnecessary 
lines,  and  finish  with  broad,  soft,  gray  lines,  studying  the  curves  of  the  apple 
and  drawing  with  a  free  movement. 


Table  linear     V  /        Farther  edge  of  the  table. 


Fig.  i. 


•oo 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 

D.  B.,  page  4.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  an  Apple. 

Observation.  —  Study   the    apple    carefully    again    in    the   manner 
given   above. 

Drawing.  —  Draw   its   outlines  as  above,  striving  to  improve  on  the  last  drawing. 
Finish  the  outlines  with  broad,  soft,  gray  lines. 


14  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  i 


EXERCISE    VI — Fan  from  the  Object. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  form  of  an  object  based  on  a  circle,  to  see  and  to  draw  it» 
outlines,  to  practice  trisection. 

Study  of  the  Fan  by  Pupils.  —  Look  at  the  fan.  Follow  with 
your  finger  the  shape  of  the  fan ;  what  is  the  shape  like  ?  (Some- 
what like  a  circle^  Trace  the  shape  again  in  the  air ;  where  is  it 
not  like  a  circle  ? 

Point   to   the   centre   of  the   fan  ;    look   now  at   these  distances,  — 
from  the  top  to  the  centre,  from  the  centre  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
handle,  from   the  upper   end  of   the    handle  to   the  lower  end ;   how 
do   the   distances   compare  ? 

Point  to  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  fan,  and  then  move  your  finger 
straight  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  handle.  Suppose  such  a  line  were 
drawn  on  the  fan,  how  would  the  part  at  the  left  of  the  line  and  the 
part  at  the  right  compare  in  size  and  shape?  (They  would  be  alike,  or 
equal.)  Describe  the  line.  (//  divides  the  fan  into  two  equal  parts.) 
The  teacher  gives  the  name  axis  for  such  an  imaginary  line. 

Trisection.  —  Turn  to  the  half  page  in  the  middle  of  the  book; 
detach  it.  Look  at  the  upper  edge,  and  think  how  to  divide  it  into 
three  equal  parts,  to  trisect  it.  Use  the  fore- 
fingers of  both  hands  to  trisect  the  edge,  and 
look  at  the  distances  carefully.  Then  fold  the 
paper  to  get  three  equal  parts ;  crease  the  folds 
and  detach  the  parts. 

Place  one  of  the  parts  vertically  on  the  desk 
and  trisect  the  left  edge,  first  with  the  fingers,  then  by  folding. 

D.  B.,  page  H.  — Practice  page  for  Ex.  VI.  —  Dictation. 

Practice.  —  The  teacher  dictates  step  by  step,  the  class  working  together.  Trisect  the 
upper  edge  of  the  page,  and  mark  the  points  lightly.  From  the  first  point  at 
the  left  draw  a  vertical  line  down  the  page,  with  a  free  movement. 


BOOK    I.] 


FAN   FROM    THE    OBJECT. 


Bisect  the  left  edge  of  the  page.  From  the  point  of  bisection  draw  a  horizontal  to 
meet  the  vertical,  with  free  movement.  In  each  of  the  two  spaces  at  the  left, 
thus  made,  draw  a  circle,  practicing  circular 
movement  over  the  paper  first. 

Find  the  second  point  of  trisection  on  the  upper 
edge  of  the  page.  Make  a  slight  point,  half 
an  inch  below,  and  mark  it  I.  From  i 
draw  a  vertical  with  a  free  movement,  stop- 
ping half  an  inch  from  the  lower  edge  of  the 
page. 

Trisect  the  vertical  and  mark  the  points  of  tri- 
section 2,  3.  Use  the  part  of  the  vertical 
from  i  to  3  as  a  vertical  diameter  for  a  D>  B"  paee  H«  completed.* 

circle.  2  will  be  the  centre  of  the  circle.  Place  points  at  the  left  and  right  of 
2  for  a  horizontal  diameter,  and  draw  it  with  a  free  movement.  Draw  a  circle  on 
the  diameters,  practicing  the  movement  first.  No  erasing.^ 

D.  B.,  page  5.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  the  Fan. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  are  Figs,  i,  2,3? 
In  Fig.  3,  which  is  the  axis  ?  There  is  a  curve  across  the  lower  part  of 
the  circle  in  Fig.  3.;  what  kind  of  a  curve  is  it?  (Circular.)  Any  part 
of  a  curve  is  called  an  arc.  How  is  the  point  where  this  arc  crosses 
the  axis  found  ?  (By  trisecting  the  middle  third  of  the  axis.)  How  are 
the  places  found  for  the  ribs  of  the  frame  ?  What  is  the  character 
of  the  line  in  the  arc  and  the  ribs  ? 

Drawing.  —  Connect  points  given  by  a  vertical.  Follow  the  order  of  drawing 
given  for  p.  12.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  circle  draw  the  curve  for  the  uppei 
part  of  the  fan.  Draw  the  handle  Add  other  details.  Finish  in  soft  gray  lines, 
noticing  the  character  of  the  lines  in  Fig.  i. 

Strive  to  make  the  drawing  like  the  outline  of  the  fan,  which  is  presented  as  an  object. 
Perhaps  this  fan  may  not  be  just  like  the  printed  fan,  but  in  any  case 
Fig.  3  will  suggest  the  way  to  study  the  details. 

*  By  mistake,  points,  figures,  and  letters  were  printed  on  this  page  in  the  first  edition  of  the  drawing- 
book.  The  page  should  be  blank. 

t  Cutting.  —  Where  pupils  have  scissors,  this  fan  can  now  be  cut  out,  adding  the  necessary  width 
for  the  handle  each  side  of  the  vertical  and  shaping  the  upper  part  like  Fig.  i,  D.  B.,  page  5. 


1 6  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  i. 

EXERCISE   VII. -Shield. 

OBJECT.  To  learn  one  form  of  a  shield,  to  study  its  proportion  and  shape,  to  draw 
its  outline. 

Study  of  the  Figure  by  Pupils.  —  Open  your  drawing-book  at 
p.  6.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  shape  of  the  figure  ?  (It  is  higher 
than  it  is  wide,  the  two  sides  are  alike.)  » 

Move  your  finger  down  the  copy  showing  the  height  of  the 
figure  ;  through  what  part  of  the  figure  have  you  moved  ?  (Through 
the  middle  of  the  figure)  What  is  the  name  of  the  line  traced  by 
the  movement  ?  (The  axis  of  the  figure^  Sketch  the  axis  on  the  copy. 

Where  is  the  widest  part  of  the  figure  ?  (At  the  upper  horizontal^} 
Trace  this  horizontal  with  your  finger,  and  note  where  you  cross  the 
axis.  Is  the  width  of  the  figure  greater  or  less  than  the  height  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  figure?  (The  teacher  gives  the  name 
shield.)  What  can  you  tell  about  the  outline  of  the  shield  ?  (//  is 
made  of  curved  lines,  it  is  not  as  wide  at  the  top  as  at  the  upper  hori- 
zontal line,  it  has  three  points  at  the  top  and  one  at  the  bottom)  Where 
are  the  points  at  the  top  placed?  (One  is  in  the  middle,  the  two  out- 
side points  are  in  a  straight  line  with  the  middle  point,  they  are  not  quite 
as  far  from  the  axis  as  the  ends  of  the  horizontal  are) 

Trace  the  upper  curve  on  the  left  with  your  finger,  — on  the 
right.  Repeat  several  times.  Of  what  does  the  movement  make 
you  think  ?  Trace  the  long  curve  at  the  left  side,  —  at  the  right. 
Repeat.  Of  what  does  the  movement  make  you  think  ? 

In  ancient  warfare  a  shield  was  borne  on  the  left  arm,  to  screen  the 
body  from  the  darts  of  the  enemy.  Shields  were  of  different  mate- 
rials and  of  different  forms.  The  arms  which  distinguish  a  family  or  a 
state  are  now  generally  displayed  on  the  figure  of  a  shield.  In  the 
great  seal  of  the  United  States,  the  American  eagle  is  represented 
with  one  foot  planted  on  a  shield,  having  the  upper  part  blue  with 
stars  upon  it,  the  lower  part  bearing  thirteen  stripes,  red  and  white 
alternating,  to  represent  the.  thirteen  original  states.  This  shield  is 
illustrated  on  the  opposite  page,  also  a  simple  French  shield. 


BOOK    I.] 


SHIELD. 


Under  what  point 


D.  B.,  page  I. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  VII. 

Practice.  —  From  a  draw  a  light  horizontal  four  inches  long, 
should  the  right  end  of  the  line  be  ?  Bisect 
the  line.  Draw  a  light  vertical  downward 
from  2,  extending  as  far  below  the  horizon- 
tal as  the  length  of  the  horizontal.  Oppo- 
site what  point  should  the  lower  end  be? 

Practice  the  movement  for  the  upper  left  curve 
on  the  copy  on  page  6.  Beginning  a  little 
at  the  right  of  o  on  page  I,  practice  the  D.  B.,  page  I,  completed, 

same  movement.      Draw  freely  and  lightly.     Repeat  on  the  right. 

Practice  and  draw  the  side  curves  in  a  similar  manner.  Draw  the  second  horizon- 
tal half  an  inch  below  the  upper.  No  erasing. 

Repeat  on  the  right  half  of  the  page,  beginning  an  inch  below  5. 

D.  B.,  page  6.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  a  Shield. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  How  many  inches  wide  are 
the  shields  you  drew  on  page  I  ?  how  many  inches  high  ?  What  is  the 
proportion  of  the  width  to  the  height  ?  (Four  inches  to  Jive  inches,  four 
to  five.)  How  long  is  the  vertical  from  the  upper  horizontal  down? 
from  the  upper  horizontal  up  ? 

Drawing. — Connect  the  points  given  at  the  right  by  a  light  horizontal.  Bisect  the 
horizontal,  and  bisect  its  left  half,  that,  is,  quadrisect  the  horizontal.  Through  the 
middle  of  the  horizontal  draw  a  vertical  for  the  axis  of  the  shield,  first  deciding 
where  to  begin  and  where  to  end.  Draw  the  shield,  studying  Fig.  2  for  details. 


i8 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  L 


DRILL    EXERCISES. 

D.  B.t  page  J.  —  Square,  Diameters,  and  Diagonals. 

Practice.  Folding.  —  Fold  the  leaf  at  a;  detach  and  make  two  squares.  Place  one 
square  in  front  of  you,  an  edge  toward  you ;  fold  the  nearer  edge  to  meet  the  far- 
ther edge.  Unfold  and  fold  the  other  two  edges  together.  Unfold ;  what  can  you 
tell  about  the  creases  ?  (They  go  from  the  middle  of  one  side  to  the  middle  of  the 
opposite  side  ;  there  can  be  only  two  in  a  square  ;  they  are  equal,  they  are  as  long  as 
the  sides  of  the  square.)  See  Fig.  i.  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  diameter.) 

Place  the  other  square  in  front  of  you,  a  corner  toward  you ;  fold  the  nearer  corner  to 
meet  the  farther  corner;  unfold.  Fold  the  other  two  corners  together.  Unfold; 
what  can  you  tell  about  the  creases  ?  ( They  go  from  one  corner  to  the  opposite 
corner,  they  cross  in  the  centre,  there  can  be  only  two  in  a  square,  they  are  equal, 
they  are  longer  than  the  diameters.)  See  Fig.  2.  (The  teacher  gives  the  name 
diagonal.)  Keep  this  square. 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig-  3- 


Fig-  4. 


Drawing.  —  A  square  resting  on  its  side  is  printed.  Bisect  its  sides  and  draw  its 
diameters  lightly,  practicing  movement  first.  Draw  lines  to  connect  the  ends  of 
the  diameters,  in  the  order  i,  2,  3,  4.  See  Fig.  3.  Compare  the  two  squares. 

D.  B.,  page  K. —  Angles,  right,  acute,  and  obtuse. 

Practice.  Folding.  —  Use  the  paper  square  with  diagonals,  made  for  page  J  Fold 
one  diameter.  Fold  from  one  corner  to  the  middle.  See  Fig.  4.  Hold  with  long 
edge  at  the  top.  Compare  the  direction  of  edges  by  movement  on  the  edges 
(two  horizontal,  one  vertical,  one  slanting.)  (The  teacher  gives  the  word  oblique.) 
Stick-Laying.  —  Look  at  the  corners  of  the  folded  square,  compare  and  describe 
(square,  sharp,  bhint).  Lay  these  corners  with  sticks,  —  one  square  corner,  one 

sharp,  one  blunt.     Turn  the  folded  square  and  lay 

<^  f         again   three    corners.     (The   teacher   gives  terms 

^"^         /  right  angle,  acute  angle,  obtuse  angle.) 

Drawing.  —  Draw  on   page  K  two  right,  two  acute, 

L\^^  \  and   two    obtuse   angles,  from    the    arrangements 

,^--*>  \          made  with   sticks.      The  illustration   of  the   page 

completed   shows    one    arrangement.     There    are 
D,  B.,  page  K,  completed.  many  others  which  can  be  made.     No  erasing. 


BOOK   I.J 


DECORATIVE    DESIGN. 


EXERCISE    VIII.  —  Decorative    Design.  —  Borders. 

MODELS  :  Squares  and  Sticks  for  Arrangement. 
OBJECT.    To  learn  what  is  meant  by  a  border,  how  to  arrange  a  border,  and  how  to  draw  it. 

Study  of  Borders  by  Pupils.  —  (The  teacher  shows  borders  about 
the  room,  on  wall-paper,  on  books,  on  aprons,  on  handkerchiefs ;  the 
pupils  find  other  borders.)  Why  do  we  have  borders?  What  figures 
do  you  find  in  the  borders  ?  Do  you  find  figures  repeated  ?  Do  you 
find  any  borders  that  have  not  figures  repeated  ?  Borders  are  usually 
made  by  the  repetition  of  figures,  called  repetition  in  a  straight  line. 

What  kinds  of  angles  do  you  find  on  page  L?  (Fig.  i  is  a  rig/it 
angle ;  Fig.  2,  right ;  Fig.  3,  acute ;  Fig.  4,  obtuse.)  What  kinds  of  figures? 
(Fig.  5  is  a  square  on  its  side ;  Fig.  6,  a  square  on  its  corner?) 

D.  B.,  page  L.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VIII. 


Z/Z>  /\/\ 


Practice.  —  Lay  with  sticks  (two  and  three  inches  long),  borders  of  right,  acute,  or 
obtuse  angles.  Draw  two  of  these  border;;  on  page  L,  connecting  the  points  given. 
Illustrations  of  borders  are  given  here  as  suggestions  to  teachers.  Arrange 
tablets  or  square  pieces  of  paper  for  another  border,  placing  the  squares  either 
on  the  sides  or  on  the  corners.  Draw  this  border  in  the  last  space.  No  erasing. 

Cut  squares  of  colored  paper  neatly  of  the  right  size  for  the  lower  border  for  page  7. 
Remember  that  whether  the  square  is  on  its  side  or  on  its  corner,  it  must  not  be 
higher  from  top  to  bottom  than  the  space  between  the  points. 


D.  B.,  page  7.  —  Making  Borders. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  in  the  upper  space  one  of  the  two  upper  borders  on  page  L. 
Arranging.  —  Paste  in  the  lower  space  the  colored  squares  to  make  a  border  like  the 
lower  border  on  page  L. 


2O  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  i. 

EXERCISE   IX. -Quatref oil. -Repetition  about  a  Centre. 

TABLETS  :  Square,  Four  Semicircles. 
OBJECT.    To  learn  the  shape  of  the  quatref oil ;  to  see  and  to  draw  its  outline  in  a  square. 

Study  of  the  Figure.  —  Open  your  books  at  page  8.  What  do 
you  see  in  Fig.  i  ?  (A  square  on  its  side,  and  in  it  a  figure  having 
the  outline  of  four  semicircles)  What  do  you  see  in  Fig.  2  ?  (A-  square 
on  its  side,  and  in  it  the  same  figure  of  four  semicircles^)  In  Fig.  3? 
(A  circle,  and  in  it  the  same  figure  of  four  semicircles'.}  This  figure  is 
called  a  quatref  oil,  meaning  four-leaved.)  What  is  Fig.  5  ?  (A  quat re- 
foil  in  a  square^}  How  should  you  think  it  was  made  ?  (By  draining 
a  square  and  drawing  a  semicircle  on  each  side.)  Where  is  the  square  ? 
(/;/  the  centre.)  And  the  semicircles  ?  {Around  the  square  in  the  centre?)* 

Look  at  the  lower  border  on  page  7 ;  how  are  squares  placed  to  make 
the  borders  ?  (In  a  straight  line,  one  after  the  other,  not  touching?)  How 
are  the  semicircles  placed  in  the  quatrefoil  ?  (Around  the  middle  square, 
and  touching  it  all  along  the  sides.)  This  arrangement  of  figures  is  called 
repetition  about  a  centre. 

What  is  a  semicircle  ?  {Half  a  circle)  How  does  its  altitude  com- 
pare with  its  base  ?  (77/6'  altitude  of  a  semicircle  is  half  its  base.) 

D.  JB.,  page  M.  — Practice  page  for  Ex.  IX. 

Practice.  —  Draw  with  free  arm  movement,  practicing  direction  before  drawing  — 
from  3,  a  vertical  down  the  page  —  from  b  and 
d,  horizontals  across  the  page  —  a  semicircle 
in  each  of  the  three  spaces  at  the  left.  Make 
points  on  the  upper  horizontal,  directly  below 
points  5  and  7.  From  each  of  the  points  thus 
made  draw  a  vertical  downward  to  the  lower 
horizontal,  thus  making  a  square.  Upon 
each  side  of  the  square  draw  semicircles 
curving  outward,  first  on  the  upper  and  lower 
sides  of  the  square,  then  on  the  left  and  right  D>  ?>)  page  M'  completed. 

sides.     No  erasing.     What  figure  have  you  drawn  ? 

*  This  lesson  can  be  given  to  great  advantage  by  providing  pupils  with  tablets  or  paper  squares  and 
semicircles,  to  arrange  for  Fig.  5. 


BOOK  i.]  QUATREFOIL.—  REPETITION  ABOUT  A    CENTRE.  21 

D.  B.,  page  8.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of   a  Quatrefoil  in  a  Square. 

Observation  Exercises  for   Pupils.  —  What  can  you   tell  about 
Figs,  i,  2,  and  3  ?    Look  for  a  quatrefoil  in  the  schoolroom,  on  the  wall- 


paper, in  the  platform  carpet ;  in  iron-work,  as  stove,  registers,  desk- 
standards,  etc. ;  on  dresses,  aprons,  neck-ties,  etc. ;  try  to  remember  any 
quatrefoil  that  you  may  have  seen  in  decoration,  or  in  buildings. 

Out  of  school,  try  to  find  a  picture  having  a  quatrefoil  in  it,  —  in 
a  newspaper.  Bring  the  paper  to  school,  and  show  the  picture,  or,  if 
you  can  be  allowed,  cut  the  picture  out.  Then,  having  detached  page 
M,  the  picture  can  be  pasted  to  the  margin  which  remains  in  the 
book  as  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  a  quatrefoil  is  used. 

Drawing.  —  Points  are  given  for  the  diameters  of  a  square.  Draw  the  diameters  and 
the  square  lightly,  in  the  order  given  for  page  M.  Place  a  point  in  the  centre 
of  each  small  square.  Draw  the  inner  square  lightly.  Draw  the  semicircles  freely 
and  lightly.  Erase  the  diameters  and  the  inner  square  and  finish  the  outer  square 
and  quatrefoil  with  broad,  soft  gray  lines. 

Cutting  a  Quatrefoil.  —  Cut  a  square.  Draw  the  diameters.  Mark  the  points  for 
the  inner  square.  Cut  the  semicircles  freely  without  drawing. 


22 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  i. 


EXERCISE  X.  — Greek  Cross.  — Trisection. 

MODELS:    Cross  cut  from  colored  paper,   Square,   having  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  cross,   cut   from  manila   paper. 

OBJECT.    To  learn  the  shape  of  the  Greek  cross,  to  see  and  to  draw  its  outline. 

Study   of  the  Paper  Cross. — What  is  the  model?    (A  cross.)  — 
Can   you  draw  at  the   board  a  cross   that  is  different   from  this,   and 
tell  how   it    differs  ?     (The  first  is   alike  on  all  four  sides ;   the  second 
is  like  the  first  at  the  top,  at  the  left,  and  at  the  right,  but  it  is  longer 
at  the  bottom.} 


Greek  Cross. 


Latin  Cross. 


Maltese  Cross. 


(The  teacher  gives  the  names  Greek  cross,  having  four  equal  arms ; 
Latin  cross,  having  the  three  upper  arms  equal,  and  the  fourth,  the  shaft, 
longer  than  the  other  three} 

Compare  the  width   of   this   Greek  cross   with   its   height ;  how  do 
they   compare  ?     (They  are  equal}     What    figures    do    you   know   that 
are   just    as    wide    as  they   are    high  ?      (Circle,  square, 
quatrefoil}     Which  will  help  you   to    draw  the    outline 
of  the  Greek  cross  ?    (The  square.) 

(The  teacher  places  the  cross  on  the  manila  square? 
and  leads  the  pupils  to  tell  how  the  Greek  cross  could 
be  made  with  tablets  or  paper  squares,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  quatrefoil,  see  p.  20 ;  and  also  that  the  sides  of  the  square 
are  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  trisected,  by  the  tablets.) 


BOOK    I.] 


GREEK   CROSS. 


D.  B.,  page  N.  —Practice  page  for  Ex.  X. 

Practice. —  Free  movement  and  proper  pencil-holding.  Draw  a  square  of  suitable 
size  for  the  page,  by  drawing  first  two  indefinite  horizontals,  then  the  verticals. 

Trisect  the  left  side.  Draw  horizontals  across  the  square.  Trisect  the  upper  side. 
Draw  verticals  down  the  square.  No  erasing, 

Complete   the   outline   of   the   cross   in   broad,   soft   gray  lines. 

D.B.,  page  9.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  the  Cross. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  can  you  tell  about 
Fig.  i  ?  Can  you  find  the  figure  of  a  Greek  cross  in  the  school- 
room ? 

Try  to  remember  any  Greek  or  Latin  cross  that  you  may  have 
seen  elsewhere.* 

Drawing.  —  Two  corners  of  a  square  are  printed.  Draw  the  square.  Trisect 
the  left  and  upper  sides  and  draw  horizontals  and  verticals,  as  in  Fig.  3. 
Finish  as  in  Fig.  i. 

Cue  a  square  of  red  paper  of  the  size  of  Fig.  i.  Upon  the  back  of  the 
square  trisect  the  sides  and  draw  horizontals  and  verticals  as  in  Fig.  3. 
Cut  out  the  cross  and  paste  it  in  the  drawing-book  below  Fig.  i,  the  upper 
edge  of  the  upper  arm  of  -the  cross  being  placed  just  on  the  printed 
horizontal.  Or,  draw  very  lightly  a  Greek  cross  of  the  size  of  Fig.  i,  using 
the  printed  horizontal  as  the  upper  line  of  the  upper  arm,  and  color  it  red.t 

*  Pupils  may  be  led,  if  circumstances  are  favorable,  to  observe  that  churches  are  frequently  built 
on  the  plan  of  a  cross. 

t  For  exercises  in  Dimension  and  Color,  giving  practice  in  the  use  of  each  of  the  three  primary 
pigment  colors,  and  also  the  relative  amount  of  each  used  in  composition  of  color,  see  D.  B.,  page  R,  — 
for  directions,  see  page  27. 


24  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  I. 

EXERCISE  XI,  —  Cube.  —  Drawing  the  Pattern, 

MODEL:  Cube. 

OBJECT.  To  work  out  the  pattern  of  a  cube,  to  make  a  hollow  cube,  to  draw  the 
pattern. 

Working  out  the  Pattern  from  the  Model.  —  What  is  a 
pattern  ?  Can  you  mention  something  made  from  a  pattern  ? 
(Iron  castings, — anything  made  of  cast  metal.)  Such  things  are  made 
from  solid  patterns ;  the  cube  might  be  a  pattern  for  iron-casting.  Can 
you  mention  something  made  from  flat  patterns  ?  (Dresses,  clothing,  — 
anything  made  of  cloth  or  leather  ;  dippers,  basins,  —  anything  made  of  sheet 
metal,  tin,  iron,  etc.;  boxes,  card-board  houses,  —  anything  made  of  pasteboard 
or  paper^}  What  are  patterns  for  ? 

We  want  to  make  a  hollow  paper  cube  of  this  size  \  what  must  we 
have  so  as  to  get  the  right  form  and  size  ?  (A  pattern^)  Must  it 
be  a  solid  or  a  flat  pattern  ?  (Flat)  Let  us  try  to  find  out  what 
the  shape  of  the  pattern  will  be.  Turn  the  cube  over  in  your  hand ; 
how  many  faces  has  it,  and  what  is  their  shape  ?  (Six  square  faces.) 
What  must  your  pattern  have,  then  ?  (Six  squares) 

Detach  the  middle  page  of  the  drawing-book,  and  place  the  cube  on 
it  half-way  down  the  page,  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  centre.  Crease  the 
paper  around  the  bottom  face ;  take  up  the  cube.  What  have  you 
creased  in  the  paper  ?  (A  square,  the  pattern  of  the  bottom  face)  Put 
the  cube  back  on  the  square,  fold  the  paper  over  it,  and  crease  the 
other  faces, 

D,  B.,  page  O.  —  Practice   page  for  Ex.  XI. 

Practice.  —  From  points  3  and  5  draw  verticals  down  the  page,  and  from 
'  points  b  and  d  draw  horizontals  across  the  page. 

The  square  formed  by  the  crossing  of  these  lines  may  be  taken  for  the 
pattern  of  the  bottom  face  of  the  cube.  How  can  the  pattern  for  the 
back  face  be  completed  ?  (By  drawing  a  vertical  for  its  left  edge  —  an  inch 
from  6.)  Draw  it.  No  erasing. 

(The  back  and  front  faces,   the  right  and  top  faces,  developed  in  a  similar  way.) 

How  could  the  drawing   of  the   pattern   have   been   made  with   long  lines  ? 


BOOK  I.] 


CUBS.  -  DRA  WING    THE  PA  TTERN. 


D.  B.,  page  O,  completed. 

D.  B.t  page  S.  —  Making  a  hollow  Cube. 

What  is  printed  on  the  page  ?  (The  pattern  of  a  cube.}  What  be- 
sides ?  Figs.  2  and  3  are  patterns  to  be  put  together  to  make  a 
ball-cover. 

(The  teacher  speaks  of  the  laps  on  the  pattern  of  the  cube  and 
their  use  in  making  a  cube, — to  be  pasted  so  as  to  hold  the  faces 
of  the  cube  together.) 

Cut  out  the  pattern,  Fig.  i,  taking  care  not  to  cut  off  the  laps; 
fold  it  so  as  to  make  a  cube,  and  paste  it  together. 

Cut  out  the  patterns  Figs.  2  and  3,  take  them  home  and  use 
them  as  patterns  for  the  cover  of  a  ball. 

D.  B.,  page  10.  —  Drawing  the  pattern  of  a  Cube. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils. — What  are  Figs,  i,  2,  and 
3  ?  Turn  the  book  sideways ;  what  is  the  shape  of  Fig.  i  ?  (The 
shape  of  the  Latin  sross.)  Suppose  that  you  wished  to  make  a  hol- 
low cube  open  at  the  top,  without  any  top  face,  what  would  be 
the  shape  of  the  pattern  ?  (A  Greek  cross.) 

Drawing.  —  The  printed  square  shows  the  place  of  the  bottom  face  in  the  pat- 
tern to  be  drawn. 

Draw  the  pattern  as  in  Fig.  i,  using  the  point  given  at  the  left  and  that  given 
above.  Draw  the  long  horizontals  indefinitely,  then  the  verticals,  finishing 
with  the  shorter  verticals  and  horizontals.  Finish  the  outline  of  the  pattern 
in  broad,  soft  gray  lines. 


26  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  I. 


EXERCISE   XII.  — Box  made  by  the  Pupil.  — Drawing  the  outline  off 
its  front  or  its  side  face. 

MODEL  :  Box  made  "by  the  pupil. 

OBJECT.    To  study  an  object  based  on  a  cube ;  to  see  and  to  draw  the  outlines  of  one 
face. 

Making  the  Model,  D.  B.,page  P.  —  Cut  out  the  pattern  printed, 
cutting  along  each  dark  line ;  fold  along  each  light 
line.  Paste  the  laps  of  2  on  the  inside  of  4  and  5 ; 


1***A^x.  JL      t*kJVX^       VAAVs         J.(~t|kS»_>         V/X        ft        VS^l          (rAJX*       IA10JAAV         \J  J.         £L       CL11U        K     * 

paste  the  laps  of  3  on  the  inside  of  4  and  5  ;  fold 
the  cover  6  at  the  front  corners;  lap  and  paste, 
to  make  the  model.  What  is  the  form  of  the  box? 
(Like  a  cube,  cubic?)  The  shape  of  its  faces?  (Square)  The  height 
of  the  cover  compared  with  the  height  of  the  box?  (One-fourth  the 
height  of  the  box.) 

D.  B.,  page  11.  —  Drawing  the  outlines  of  the  Box. 

Observation.  —  What  do  the  pictures  represent?  (Fig.  i,  a  box  shut, 
placed  so  that  you  can  see  the' top  of  it,  the  corner  toward  you;  Fig.  2,  a  box 
open,  placed  so  that  you  can  see  into  it,  the  corner  toward  you.)  Place  your 
box  to  look  as  in  Fig.  i  ;  as  in  Fig.  2.  Hold  it  up  so  that  you  can 
see  only  the  front  face.  In  drawing  the  front  face,  what  would  you 
draw  first  ?  (A  square.)  What  would  you  do  next  ?  (Bisect  the  left 
edge,  Insect  the  upper  half  for  the  height  of  the  cover,  then  draw  a  horizon- 
tal for  the  lower  edge  of  the  covert)  Turn  the  box  and  look  at  the 
side  face.  How  would  you  draw  the  side  face  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  front  face  of  the  box  which  you  have  made,  making  your 
drawing  twice  as  high  and  twice  as  wide  as  the  box.  Follow  the  order  of 
work  given  above.  Finish  in  broad,  soft  gray  lines. 


BOOK  i.]  LEAF   FROM   NATURE.  2J 

EXERCISE    XIII.— Leaf  from   Nature. 

MODEL :  Plantain  leaf  about  the  size  of  the  copy,  brought  by  each  child. 
OBJECT,    To  study  a  natural  leaf,  to  see  and  to  draw  its  outline. 

Study   of   the    Leaf  by   Pupils-.  —  Pass  your   thumb,  and  fingers 
along  the  stem  of  your  leaf  and   out  to  the  point ; 
what  do  you  feel  ?     Turn  the  leaf  over ;  what  do 
you   see    running   out   to    the    point    or    apex    of 
the   leaf?     (Ridges  —  ribs  —  a  midrib.) 

Lay  the  leaf  upon  the  desk.  Beginning  at  the 
apex  of  the  leaf  with  each  forefinger,  trace  around 
the  edge  or  margin  of  the  leaf  and  down  the 
stem.  Trace  the  margin  again,  but  trace  with  long  straight  lines. 
Trace  the  midrib  in  the  same  way.  How  does  it  look  near  the  apex 
of  the  leaf?  How  far  down  the  stem  does  it  go? 

D.  B.,  page  Q.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  XIII. 

Practice.  —  Place  the  leaf  on  the  left  half  of  the  page.  Draw  the  midrib  in  straight 
lines,  making  it  as  Long  as  the  midrib  of  the  leaf.  Draw  each  margin  with  three 
straight  lines.  Draw  the  curve  for  each  margin  and  for  the  midrib  over  the 
straight  lines,  at  one  sweep,  getting  the  curve  by  movement.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page   12.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  a  Leaf. 

Drawing.  —  At  the  right  draw  your  leaf,  as  on  page  Q  (not  the  copy),  and  finish. 

OPTIONAL    EXERCISE    IN     DIMENSION    AND     COLOR. 

D.  B.,  page  R. 

Dictation.  —  From  a,  &,  c,  d,  e,f  draw  light  horizontals  across  the  page;  from  i   and 


8  draw  verticals  down  the  page.     Beginning 

i  inch  to  the  right  of  rt,  draw  a  straight  line  r 
figure  3  half-inches  long  and  i  inch  high ;   i 

inch  below,  a  figure  5  half-inches  long  and  i  •      ' '         *— ' 

inch  high  ;   i  inch  below,  a  figure  8  half-inches  .       . 

long  and  i  inch  high.     Draw  the  same  figures  I 1  1  \ 

in  inverse  order  on  the  right.    See  illustration. 

Color  the  figures  of  3  half-inches  yellow,  those  '     j  i        j         j 

of  five  half-inches  red,  those  of  8  half-inches  ,     L '        *• » 

blue  D.  B.,  page  R,  completed. 


28  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  L 


LANGUAGE. 

The  answers  italicized  in  the  text  for  each  exercise  are  generally 
abbreviated;  and  are  intended  only  as  suggestions,  and  not  as  models 
ot  the  form  of  answers  to  be  required  from  pupils.  But  teachers 
should  give  pupils  frequent  opportunities  of  applying  the  following 
terms  and  names,  and  should  require  complete  sentences. 

Terms  of  Location,  Direction,  Position,  Seeing,  Length,  and  Division. 

LOCATION. —  Left,  right,  top,  bottom  ;  left  edge,  right  edge,  upper  edge,  lower 

edge ;  upper  left  corner,  upper  right  corner,  lower  left  corner,  lower  right 

corner. 
DIRECTION  AND  POSITION.  —  From  left  to  right,  from   top  to  bottom,  from 

corner  to  corner;  circular,  curved,  straight;  vertical,  horizontal,  oblique. 
SEEING.  —  The   part   toward   you,  the   part   away  from  you ;  top  view,  front 

view. 

LENGTH.  —  Long,  short,  equal;  one  inch,  two  inches,  three  inches,  etc. 
DIVISION.  —  Bisect,  trisect. 

Names  of  Models,  Objects,  Arrangements,  and  Details. 

SPHERE,  CUBE,  HEMISPHERE;  face,  edge,  corner. 

CIRCLE,  SEMICIRCLE,  ARC;  centre,  diameter. 

SQUARE;  diameter,  diagonal;  on  its  side,  on  its  corner. 

ANGLE;  right,  acute,  obtuse. 

REPETITION;  on  an  axis,  in  a  straight  line,  around  a  centre;  border,  shield, 

cross,  quatrefoil. 
APPLE;  stem,  blossom. 

LEAF;  plantain  leaf;  rib,  midrib,  apex,  margin. 
COLOR;  yellow,  red,  blue. 


BOOK     II. 


Models. 

SOLIDS :  Cylinder,  Square  Prism,  Vase  Form. 
TABLETS  :  Circle,  Square,  Oblong-. 
NATURAL  FORMS :  Vegetables,  Leaves. 
OBJECTS :  Envelope,  Tumbler,  Bowl,  Boxes. 

Decorative    Forms. 

SQUARE-LEAVED    QUATREFOIL,  LEAF   FORM,  ORIGINAL   DESIGN. 

Making. 

(  Square  Prism,  Envelope. 
FROM   A   PATTERN:^ 

(  Round,  Square,  and  Oblong-  Boxes. 

Drawing. 

PENCIL-HOLDING,    MOVEMENT,    LIGHT    LINES,    ERASING,    BROAD 

GRAY   LINES. 

Language. 

(See  page  54.) 

NAMES  OF  MODELS  AND  DECORATIVE  FORMS,  AND  THEIR  DETAILS. 
TERMS    OF   RELATION,    PROPORTION,  VIEWS,    ARRANGEMENT. 

Color. 

THE   THREE    SECONDARY    PIGMENT   COLORS. 


30  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  IL 

DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  A. 

OBJECT.    Practice  for  proper  position  of  pupil  and  of  paper;   proper  pencil-holding; 
free  arm  movement  from  left  to  right,  from  top  to  bottom,  and  from  corner  to  corner. 

Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Before  beginning  work  in  the  book, 
show  pupils  how  to  hold  their  pencils  for  free  movement  and  draw- 
ing. Give  practice  in  movement  with  the  pencil  from  left  to  right,  and 
see  \hn\.  each  pupil  holds  the  pencil  properly  (see  Fig.  i,  p.  xiii),  —  the 
same  for  movement  from  top  to  bottom  (see  Fig.  2,  p.  xiii),  —  and' 
from  corner  to  corner  (see  Figs.  3  and  4,  p.  xiii).  For  movement  and 
for  drawing  count  i,  2,  3,  to  keep  the  children  together. 


Practice.  —  Open  your  book  at  page  A,  and  place  it  well  back  on  the  desk.  Read 
the  points  at  the  left  of  the  page  (o,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  /).  How  far  apart  are  they? 

Sit  up  straight,  and  with  pencil  in  hand,  held  properly,  begin  at  point  a,  and  move  the 
hand  across  the  page  (without  drawing  and  with  the  whole  arm  movement)  at 
least  three  times ;  then  draw  lightly  across  the  page  with  one  continuous 
movement.  Repeat  the  movement  and  drawing,  remembering  to  hold  the  pencil 
properly  and  to  practice  the  movement  before  drawing.  No  erasing. 

Read  the  points  at  the  top  of  the  page.  How  far  apart  are  they  ?  Draw  from  these 
points  down  the  page,  remembering  pencil-holding  and  movement. 


BOOK    II.] 


DRILL    EXERCISES. 


Draw  also  from  the  upper  left  to  the  lower  right  corner,  and  from  the  upper  right  to 
the  lower  left  corner,  with  proper  pencil-holding  and  movement.     No  erasing. 


D.  B.,  page  A,  completed. 


'O 

Q, 

o 

O 

d 

o 

D.  B.,  page  B,  completed. 


Drawing-Book,  page  B. 
OBJECT.    Free  arm  movement,  and  drawing  round  and  round. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Give  directions  for  holding  the  pencil  for 
movement  round  and  round  (see  Fig.  5,  p.  xiii).  The  pencil  must  be 
held  the  same  throughout  the  movement.  Count  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 

Practice.  —  Draw  with  free  arm  movement,  a  line  from  c  across  the  page,  and  lines 

from  3  and  6  down  the  page,  dividing  it  into  six  parts. 
In  the  upper  left-hand  space,  beginning  at  i,  and  moving  in  the  direction  i,  2,  3,  4,  r,  2, 

etc.  (see  Fig.  5,  page  xiii),  practice  the  movement  for  a  circle,  as  large  as  the 

space  will  allow,  then  draw  a  circle  with  one  sweep,  always  pointing  the  pencil 

toward  the  left ;  repeat  in  the  other  spaces.     No  erasing. 

Drawing-Book,  page  C. 
OBJECT.    Practice  in  drawing  circles  on  their  diameters  with  free  arm  movement. 

Practice.  —  Practice  movement  1,2,3,4  over  the  printed  circle,  holding  the  pencil 
long  as  shown  in  the  illustrations,  pp.  xii  and 
30,  and  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  illus- 
tration, Fig.  5,  page  xiii.  Practice  a  similar 
movement  on  the  next  two  diameters  given, 
then  draw  a  circle  with  one  sweep  of  the 
pencil.  Repeat  on  the  next  two  diameters. 
Practice  movement  now  for  a  larger  circle, 
on  the  two  diameters  at  the  left,  below,  and 
draw  the  circle  with  one  sweep  of  the  pencil. 
Repeat  on  the  other  diameters.  No  erasing. 


D.  B.,  page  C,  completed. 


32  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  n. 

EXERCISE  I. —Three  Views  of  a  Horizontal   Cylinder. 

MODELS :    Sphere,    Cube,    Cylinder,  Circle,  Oblong. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  general  form  of  a  cylinder;  to  see  the  shape  of  its  various 
views,  to  draw  the  views. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  What  would  you  call  this 
new  model  ?  (A  roller.)  Take  the  sphere  in  one  hand  and  the  roller 
in  the  other.  Pass  the  fingers  around  the  sphere  and  along  the  roller. 
What  do  you  discover  ?  (The  sphere  is  round  in  every  direction,  the 
roller  is  round  in  only  one  direction)  (The  teacher  gives  the  terms, 
round  face  for  the  sphere,  curved  face  for  the  roller.) 

What  kind  of  faces  has  the  cube?  (Plane  faces.)  What  faces  has 
the  roller  besides  the  curved  face  ?  (Two plane  faces.)  Roll  the  sphere ; 
roll  the  roller.  How  do  they  roll  ?  (The  sphere  rolls  in  any  direction, 
the  roller  in  but  one.)  How  will  they  stand  best  ?  (The  teacher  gives 
the  name  cylinder)  What  is  the  height  of  the  cylinder?  the  width? 
the  proportion  of  the  height  to  the  width? 

Hold  the  cylinder  upright  opposite  your  eyes;  how  much  of  the 
curved  face  can  you  see?  (The  part  towards  me.)  Trace  the  outline 
of  that  part  in  the  air,  begin  at  the  bottom  of  the  left  side,  move 
up  to  the  top,  straight  across  the  plane  face,  down  the  right  side, 
and  across  the  bottom  to  the  place  where  you  started.  Find  a 
tablet  having  the  shape  of  this  outline.  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
tablet  ?  (Higher  than  it  is  wide.)  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  oblong.) 

D.  B.,  page  D. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  I. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Hold  the  cylinder  upright 
opposite  your  eyes ;  what  view  of  the  cylinder  have  you  ?  (Front 
view)  What  is  the  position  of  the  cylinder?  (Upright  or  vertical?) 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  front  view?  (Oblong)  Look  down  on  the 
top  of  the  cylinder ;  what  view  have  you  ?  (Top  view)  What  is 
its  shape  ?  (Circular.)  What  tablet  has  the  shape  of  the  front 
view?  (The  oblong.)  Of  the  top  view?  (The  circle)  Can  you  draw 
these  two  views  on  the  board  ?  Draw  first  the  top  view.  Where  will 


BOOK    II.j 


HORIZCNTAL    CYLINDER. 


33 


you   place   the   front  view?     Observe  a  horizontal   cylinder  in  a  sim- 
ilar way  to  obtain  the  left  end,   front  and  top  views. 

Practice.  —  The   top   view  of  a   vertical    cylinder   is  given.     Draw    the  front   view. 

How  wide  should  the  front  view  be?  (As  wide  as  the  top  view.)  Draw  the  sides 
of  the  front  view,  obtaining  their  place  by  movement  downward  from  the 
ends  of  the  horizontal  diameter  of  the  top  view.  Using  the  angle  given,  draw 
horizontals,  first  practicing  movement. 

The  front  view  of  a  horizontal  cylinder  is  given.  Draw  its  left  end  and  top  views, 
practicing  movement  first.  Get  the  length  of  the  top  view  by  movement 
upward  from  the  verticals  of  the  front  view.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  1.  —  Drawing  the  left  end  and  top  views  of  a  Horizontal 
Cylinder. 


Observation  Exercises  for  the  Pupils. — What  does  the  picture 
in  the  drawing-book  represent  ?  How.  large  is  the  picture  ? 

Mention  objects  cylindric  (like  a  cylinder)  in  form, — objects  in  the 
room,  objects  that  you  can  remember.  Can  any  one  make  a  cylin- 
der at  home? 

Drawing.  —  The  front  view  of  a  horizontal  cylinder  is  given.  Draw  its  left 
end  and  top  views,  according  to  the  directions  given  for  practice  above, 
using  the  points  given.  Erase  the  diameters  in  the  left  end  view  and  finish 
the  left  and  top  views. 


P.  B.,  page  D,  completed. 


P.  B.,  page  i,  completed. 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  IL 


EXERCISE   II. —  Square    Prism.     Two   Views. 

MODELS:     Cylinder,   Cube.  Square   Prism,  Square,  Oblong. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  form  of  a  square  prism,  to  see  the  shape  and  proportion  of 
some  of  its  views,  to  draw  these  views. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils. —  How  does  this  model  com- 
pare with  the  cylinder  ?  with  the  cube  ?  How  many  faces  has  it  ? 
What  kind  of  faces?  (Plane faces.)  What  is  the  shape  of  the  faces? 
'(Some  are  square,  some  oblong?)  How  many  square  faces  has  it?  how 
many  oblong?  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  square  prism,  and 
brings  out  parallel  faces, — everywhere  the  same  distance  apart.) 

How  high  is  the  model  ?  how  wide  ?  What  is  the  proportion  of 
the  width  to  the  height  ?  (/  to  2.)  What  is  the  shape  of  the  front 
view  of  the  vertical  prism  ?  of  the  top  view  ?  Place  the  prism  hori- 
zontally and  observe  it  in  a  similar  way  as  to  its  end  and  front  views. 

D.  B.,  page  E.—  Practice  for  Ex.  II. 

Practice.  —  The  front  view  of  a  square  prism  is  given.  Below  it,  draw  the  bot- 
tom view,  using  the  angle  given,  —  first  indefinite  verticals,  by  vertical  move- 
ment from  the  sides  of  the  front  view,  —  then  horizontals. 

At  the  right  of  the  front  view,  at  the  top  of  the  page,  an  angle  is  given. 
Draw  the  end  and  front  views  of  a  horizontal  square  prism,  —  first  indefi- 
nite horizontals  long  enough  for  both  views,  —  then  verticals.  No  erasing. 

D.  B,,  page  2,  —  Drawing  two  views  of  a  Square  Prism, 

Drawing.  —  The  top  view  of  a  square  prism  is  given.  Draw  the  front  view,  —  ver» 
ticals  first,  by  movement  from  the  sides  of  the  top  view,  then  horizontals. 


BOOK    II.] 


OBLONG    TABLET. 


35 


EXERCISE    III.  — Oblong  Tablet.  —  Five    Views. 

MODEL:    Oblong   Tablet. 

Making  and  Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils. —  Detach  page 
D  and  cut  out  the  printed  oblong.  How  many  faces  has  this  tablet 
that  you  have  cut  out  ?  how  many  edges  ?  Hold  the  tablet  vertical  and 
facing  you :  what  is  its  shape  ?  how  high  is  it  ?  how  wide  ?  what  is 
the  proportion  of  the  height  to  width  ?  (2  to  i.)  (The  teacher  develops 
parallel  and  perpendicular  edges.)  Hold  it  facing  you  with  its  long 
edges  horizontal ;  how  high  is  it  ?  how  wide  ?  the  proportion  of  height 
to  width  ?  (i  to  2.)  Which  sides  are  parallel  to  each  other  ?  which 
perpendicular  ? 

Turn  it  backward  until  you  see  only  the  edge ;  what  will  you  draw 
for  the  edge  view?  (A  straight  line.)  How  long?  Turn  the  end 
toward  you ;  how  long  is  the  edge  view  ?  Can  you  draw  on  the 
board  the  face  view  of  such  a  tablet,  and  its  four  edge  views? 

D.  B.,  page  E.— Practice  for  Ex.  III. 

.Practice.  —  The  face  view  of  an  oblong  tablet  is  printed,  and  points  are  given 
at  which  to  begin  'the  drawing  of  the  top  and  left  edge  views.  Draw  the 
top,  bottom,  left,  and  right  edge  views.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  2.  —  Drawing  the  edge  views  of  an  Oblong  Tablet. 

Colored  Oblong. —  Cut  an  oblong  of  paper  (purple  if  possible)  at 
home  or  at  school  and  paste  it  in  the  drawing-book  to  cover  the 
printed  oblong,  —  or,  mixing  blue  and  red,  color  the  printed  oblong 
purple. 

Drawing.  —  Draw   the   top   view,   bottom  view,   left  and  right  edge  views. 


D.  B.,  page  E,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  2,  completed. 


36  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  ir. 

EXERCISE    IV. —  Square     Prism.  —  Drawing    the    Pattern. 

MODELS:  Square    Prism,  Square  and  Oblong:. 

OBJECT.  To  work  out  the  pattern  for  a  square  prism,  to  make  a  hollow  square  prism, 
to  draw  the  pattern. 

Making  the  Pattern.  —  (The  teacher  recalls  or  develops  the  idea 
of  a  pattern,  as  suggested  in  the  manual  text  for  Ex.  XL,  Book  I., 
p.  24,  then  takes  up  the  square  prism.) 

How  many  faces  has  the  square  prism?  What  is  the  shape  of 
the  faces  ?  In  what  respects  are  a  square  and  oblong  alike  ?  How 
do  they  differ?  What  kind  of  angles  has  a  square?  an  oblong? 
What  is  a  square  ?  (A  square  is  a  figure  having  four  equal  sides 
and  four  right  angles?)  What  is  an  oblong  ?  (An  oblong  is  a  figure 
having  four  sides,  two  longer,  two  shorter,  and  four  right  angles?) 

Of  what  figures  would  you  make  the  pattern  for  a  square  prism? 
(Of  four  oblongs  and  two  squares?) 

Detach  one  of  the  two  middle  pages  of  the  drawing-book,  place  the 
square  prism  on  the  page  on  an  oblong  face.  Turn  up  the  paper 
around  the  oblong  face  of  the  prism  and  crease  it,  to  get  the  shape 
of  the  faces  in  the  paper. 

D.    B.,  page    F. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  IV. 

Practice.  —  Draw  upon  this  page  the  pattern  for  a  square  prism  as  seen  in  Fig.  i, 
page  3.  Bisect  the  distances  between  a  and  b  and  between  d  and  e.  From  these 
points  draw  horizontals  across  the  page.  Bisect  the  distance  between  5  and  6. 
From  the  point  of  bisection  and  from  point  4  draw  verticals  down  the  page.  The 
oblong  made  by  the  crossing  of  the  horizontals  and  verticals  may  be  taken  for 
the  second  oblong  face  seen  in  Fig.  i,  page  3.  Complete  the  drawing  of  the 
pattern,  —  drawing  first  all  verticals,  then  all  horizontals.  Long  pencil-holding 
and  free  arm  movement.  No  erasing. 

D.    B.,  page  Q. — Making  a  hollow  Square  Prism. 

What  is  printed  on  this  page  ?  (The  pattern  for  a  square  prism?) 
Fold  the  page  on  the  line  a  b,  crease  firmly  and  detach  the  part 
containing  the  pattern.  Cut  out  the  pattern,  taking  care  not  to  cut  off 
the  laps.  Write  your  name  neatly  on  an  oblong  face.  Fold  the 
pattern  so  as  to  make  a  square  prism,  and  paste  it  together. 


BUUK  ii.]  PATTERN   OF   A    SQUARE    PRISM.  37 

D.  B.,  page  3.  —  Drawing  the   pattern   of  a   Square   Prism. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils. — What  is  Fig.  i?  Fig.  2? 
Fig.  3  ?  If  Fig.  3  were  unfolded,  would  it  be  like  Fig.  i  ?  Having  an 
oblong  given  as  one  face  of  a  square  prism,  how  would  you  draw  the 
pattern  of  the  prism  ? 

Drawing.  —  The  printed  oblong  corresponds  to  the  second  face  in  Fig.  i.  Draw 
the  pattern  as  in  Fig.  i,  using  the  point  given  at  the  left,  —  first  the  long  horizon- 
tals indefinitely,  then  the  verticals,  finishing  with  the  short  horizontals. 

Making  a  Box.  —  An  illustration  is  given  below  of  the  pattern  of 
an  envelope,  Fig.  i,  and  of  the  same  envelope  folded,  Fig.  2.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  tongue  seen  on  Fig.  i,  at  the  left,  serves  to  fasten 
the  envelope  when  closed,  as  in  Fig.  2.  The  envelope  is  pasted 
across  the  bottom  and  up  the  vertical  line  to  the  notch.  This  device 
has  been  patented,  and  the  envelope  is  used  largely  by  manufacturers 
and  merchants  in  sending  out  samples  by  mail.  A  box  can  be  made 
from  stiff  paper,  having  the  form  of  a  square  prism,  and  a  cover  like 
that  in  Ex.  XII.,  Book  I.,  which  can  be  fastened  with  a  similar 
device. 


Fig.  i 


Fig.  2. 


38  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  n. 

EXERCISE    V.  — Envelope. 

MODEL :    Envelope. 

OBJECT.  To  study  an  object  based  on  an  oblong  ;  to  determine  its  proportion ;  to  draw 
its  outlines. 

Making  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Turn  to  page  K,  detach 
the  page,  cut  out  the  printed  pattern ;  fold  and  paste  to  make  an 
envelope. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Hold  your  envelope  verti- 
cal, the  plain  front  side  facing  you;  what  is  its  shape?  (Oblong?) 
Its  size  ?  (Four  inches  and  a  half  high,  two  and  a  half  wide,  four  and 
a  half  by  two  and  a  half?)  Its  proportion  ?  (About  4  to  2,  we  cannot 
tell  exactly?)  How  can  you  draw  the  envelope  of  the  right  propor- 
tion ?  (By  judgment;  we  know  that  the  drawing  should  be  a  little  more 
than  half  as  wide  as  high ;  we  shall  have  to  judge  the  rest?) 

Turn  your  envelope,  so  that  the  lapped  side,  the  back,  will  face 
you  as  in  Fig.  2,  page  G.  Where  is  the  point  of  the  flap?  (About 
in  the  middle  of  the  oblong?)  If  you  should  draw  a  horizontal  through 
the  middle  of  the  oblong,  what  would  you  call  that  line?  (The  hor- 
izontal diameter  of  the  oblong?)  Where  would  the  oblique  laps  that 
start  in  the  right-han'd  corners  meet  ?  (On  the  horizontal  diameter?) 
Draw  the  horizontal  diameter  of  Fig.  2  ;  trisect  the  left  half-diameter, 
note  that  the  oblique  edges,  if  continued,  would  meet  at  about  the 
second  point  of  trisection.  (The  teacher  gives  the  term  semi  diameter.) 

D.  B.t  page   G.— Practice   page   for  Ex.   V. 

Practice.  —  Required  on  this  page  two  drawings  of  a  vertical  envelope,  —  one  of 
the  front,  the  other  of  the  back. 

FRONT.  —  Two  angles  are  given  at  the  right  of  Figs,  i  and  2.  Draw  a  vertical  con- 
necting the  lines.  This  vertical  is  for  the  left  edge  of  the  envelope.  Determine 
the  width  necessary  for  a  drawing  that  will  have  the  proportion  of  the  model, 
and  draw  the  vertical  for  the  right  edge.  Draw  the  horizontals. 

BACK.  —  One  angle  is  given.  Draw  an  oblong  as  for  the  front.  Draw  its  diameter. 
Trisect  the  semidiameters.  Draw  the  oblique  lines,  noting  whether  they  are 
straight  from  the  corner  or  whether  they  are  curved  or  bent.  No  erasing. 


HOOK    II.] 


ENVELOPE. 


39 


D.  B.,  page  4.  —  Drawing  an  Envelope. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  What 
do  the  broken  horizontals  represent?  (The  address^  What  is  the  spe- 
cial purpose  of  each  line  of  the  address?  What  is  the  vertical  ob- 
long in  the  corner?  What  is  the  actual  size  of  a  postage-stamp? 
Why  is  it  not  made  of  that  size  in  Fig.  i  ?  On  what  part  of  an 
envelope  should  the  postage-stamp  be  placed  ?  Why  ? 

What  is  Fig.  2  ?  If  you  were  going  to  draw  such  a  figure,  what 
line  would  you  draw,  to  help  you  in  placing  '  the  point  of  the  flap 
and  the  point  of  the  lower  part  that  is  turned  up  ?  (A  vertical  as 
a  centre  line.) 

Write  your  name  and  address  on  the  envelope  that  you  made  from 
page  K,  or  on  another  envelope  which  you  may  prefer  as  a  model.* 

Drawing.  —  Two  short  printed  horizontals  show  the  height  of  the  envelope.  Begin- 
ning near  the  left  margin  of  the  page,  draw  two  indefinite  horizontals  through  the 
short  horizontals.  Determine  the  width  necessary  to  make  the  drawing  of  the 
same  proportion  as  the  envelope  you  have  for  a  model.  Draw  the  left  and 
right  verticals.  Finish  now  either  as  a  front  view  as  in  Fig.  i,  or  as  a  back  view 
as  in  Fig.  2.  If  the  latter  is  chosen,  draw  an  indefinite  vertical  downward  through 
the  points  beginning  just  below  the  title  of  the  exercise,  for  the  centre  line  of  the 
drawing.  Place  points  on  this  line  where  the  oblique  lines  meet  it. 

*  The  illustrations  show  the  most  common  shapes  of  envelopes.  They  can  be  drawn  upon  the 
board  and  pupils  questioned,  without  attempt  to  influence  their  choice  as  to  which  is  the  most  pleasing 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig. 


shape.  This  will  serve  as  an  exercise  in  experimental  aesthetics,  for  learning  the  most  pleasing  propor- 
tion. By  collating  the  results  obtained  in  large  numbers  of  classes,  the  average  preference  can  be 
obtained.  For  this  reason  the  authors  will  regard  it  as  a  favor,  if  teachers  will  record  the  number  of 
pupils  in  a  class  preferring  eadi  shape,  and  send  the  record  to  "The  authors  of  Prang's  Shorter 
Course,"  7  Park  Street,  Boston 


40  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [»OOK  n. 

EXERCISE    VI.  — Natural   Form. 

MODEL :    Each  child  brings  a  Potato,  or  some  other  vegetable. 

OBJECT.    To   study  a  natural    form,  to  see   its    proportion  and    outline,  to  draw   its 
outline. 

Study  of  the  Model.  — Place  the  object  on  a  book.  With  the 
left  hand,  lift  the  book  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  eye.  With  the 
right  hand,  measure  the  height  of  the  object,  on  the  pencil,  placing 
the  pencil  against  the  object  vertically.  Hold  the  pencil  point  up 
ward,  so  that  the  lower  end  seems  just  to  cover  the  lower  line 
of  the  object,  and  move  the  thumb  until  it  seems  just  to  cover 
the  upper  line  of  the  object.  Compare  this  with  the  width.  How 
do  the  distances  compare  ?  About  how  many  inches  is  the  object 
from  top  to  bottom?  from  left  to  right? 


Hold  the  object  at  arm's  length  on  a  level  with  the  eyes  and  trace 
its  outline  with  your  finger  on  the  object.  Lay  your  pencil  across 
the  top ;  is  the  pencil  horizontal  or  oblique  ?  Lay  your  pencil  on 
the  sides ;  is  the  general  direction  vertical  or  oblique  ?  This  study 
will  give  the  direction  of  the  blocking -in  lines. 

D.  B.,  page  H. —  Practice   page  for   Ex.   VI. 

Study  of  Margins.  —  Open  your  reader;  what  is  the  space  around 
the  printing  called?  (The  margin?)  Find  other  margins.  You  are 
to  make  a  drawing  on  page  H,  full  size  of  the  object,  if  you  can  do 
so  and  leave  sufficient  margin.  On  a  page  of  the  size  of  page  H  how 
much  margin  should  you  allow?  (Usually  not  less  than  an  inch?) 


BOOK  ii.]  NATURAL    FORM.  41 

How  should  the  left  and  right  margins  compare  in  width  ?  (They 
should  be  equal.)  If  in  a  drawing  the  top  and  bottom  margins  are 
made  unequal,  which  should  be  the  wider?  (The  top  margin^) 

The  illustrations  show  Fig.  i  as  a  completed  drawing,  with  the  stages 
of  drawing  it,  Figs.  2,  3,  and  4.  A  potato  has  been  selected,  because 
every  child  can  bring  one. 


Farther  edge  of  the  table. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 

Practice.  —  Make  a  large  drawing  on  this  page,  full  size  of  the  object  if  possible. 
Draw  light  indefinite  lines  to  show  the  height  and  width,  studying  the  ob- 
ject carefully  for  the  general  proportion  and  for  the  direction  of  the  blocking- 
in  lines  for  the  first  stage.  Add  other  straight  lines  necessary  to  complete 
the  blocking-in.  Draw  the  curves  over  the  straight  lines.  Add  details  and 
the  table  line. 

D.  B.,  page  5.  —  Drawing  the   outlines. 

Study  of  Details  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  Fig.  i,  on  page  5?  Fig. 
2  ?  What  details  do  you  notice  in  Fig.  i  ?  (The  eyes  of  the  potato^) 
In  Fig.  2  ?  (The  stem  and  elongated  end.) 

Pass  your  fingers  over  the  surface  of  your  object,  —  over  a 
rounded  part  of  your  desk ;  what  difference  in  the  surface  do  you 
notice  ?  (One  is  smooth  and  even  or  regulai^  the  other  irregular?} 
Compare  the  lines  in  the  illustrations  on  this  page  with  those  on 
p.  4;  what  difference  do  you  notice? 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  practice.  Finish  in  broad,  soft,  gray 
lines,  breaking  the  outlines  somewhat  to  indicate  irregularity  of.  surface. 


42  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [HOOK  n. 


EXERCISE    VII. -Bowl. 

OBJECT.     To  study  the   purpose  of  a  bowl,  and  also   the  several  forms  of  bowls ;  to 
draw  a  bowl  of  a  pleasing  form,  and  suited   to  its  purpose. 

Observation  of  Form  of  Objects  as  suited  to  their  Purpose. 
What  do  you  like  to  drink?  From  what  do  you  drink?  Are  tin 
drinking-cups  usually  higher  than  they  are  wide,  or  wider  than  they  are 
high  ?  How  is  it  with  tumblers  ?  How  do  you  take  hold  of  a  tumbler 
when  you  drink?  of  a  tin  cup? 

Can  you  think  of  a  tumbler  of  the  same  width  all  the  way  down  ? 
What  is  the  direction  of .  its  sides?  {Vertical?)  Of  what  model 
does  it  make  you  think?  (A  cylinder.)  What  would  you  draw  for 
the  front  view  of  a  cylinder?  Can  you  draw  upon  the  board  the  front 
view  of  a  tumbler  that  is  the  same  width  all  the  way  down,  and 
make  it  of  good  proportion,  that  is,  so  that  it  will  look  well  and 
so  that  you  think  it  would  be  convenient  to  drink  from?  All  look 
at  the  drawing;  what  do  you  think  about  it? 

(The  teacher  develops  the  idea  of  a  tumbler  wider  at  the  top 
than  at  the  bottom  in  a  similar  way.) 

D.  B.,  pSLge  I. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  VII. 

Practice.  —  Two  drawings  of  front  views  of  tumblers  are  to  be  made  on  this 
page.  Draw  an  indefinite  vertical  centre  line  for  each.  On  the  left  centre 
line  draw  the  front  view  of  a  tumbler  with  vertical  sides,  making  the 
drawing  of  the  size  and  proportion  that  you  think  pleasing  and  suitable  for  a 
tumbler  of  the  kind. 

On  the  right  centre  line  make  a  drawing  of  a  tumbler  wider  at  the  top  than 
at  the  bottom,  of  suitable  and  pleasing  proportion.  No  erasing. 

Observation  of  Form   of  Bowls  as  suited  to  their  Purpose. 

—  From  what  do  you  eat  bread  and  milk?  Are  bowls  usually 
higher  than  they  are  wide  or  wider  than  they  are  high?  (Wider 
than  they  are  high?)  Why?  Are  all  bowls  alike?  Can  you  draw 
on  the  board  the  front  view  of  the  bowl  from  which  you  eat? 
Can  you  1  Can  you  f 


BOOK  ii.]  BOWL.  43 

(The   teacher    should   obtain   from   pupils  if    possible    as   many    as 
six  drawings ;    some  will   perhaps   be   like   the    illustrations   below.) 


Has  the  bowl  from  which  you  eat  a  sharp  edge?  Did  you  ever  see 
a  bowl  with  a  sharp  edge?  Why  do  not  bowls  have  sharp  edges? 

Which  do  you  like  better,  a  bowl  with  straight  sides  or  curved 
sides  ?  Should  it  be  narrow  or  broad  at  the  bottom  ? 

Find  a  bowl  that  you  like  at  home.  Make  a  drawing  of  it  and 
bring  it  to  school. 

D.  B.,  page  J.  —  Second  practice  page   for  Ex.  VII. 

Drawing.  —  Only  one  drawing  is  to  be  made  on  this  page.  Draw  an  indefinite 
vertical  through  the  middle  of  the  ,page.  On  this  as  a  centre  line  make  a 
drawing  of  the  front  view  of  a  bowl  of  pleasing  and  suitable  size  and  pro- 
portions,—  such  a  bowl  as  you  would  like  to  see  and  to  use. 

D.  B.,  page  6. — Drawing  a  Bowl. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  through  the  middle  of  the  space  at  the  right  an  indefinite  vertical 
downward.  On  this  as  a  centre  line  draw  the  front  view  of  a  bowl.  Make  the  draw- 
ing as  large  as  the  space  will  allow.  How  wide  a  margin  should  you  have  at  the 
left  and  right  of  the  drawing  ?  Make  the  bowl  of  such  a  form  (with  either 
straight  sides  or  curved)  as  you  think  will  be  pleasing  and  suitable,  —  such  a 
bowl  as  you  would  like  to  have. 


44  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  IL 

OPTIONAL    EXERCISE    IN     DIMENSION    AND     IN     COLOR. 

D.  B.  —  Middle  blank  page. 

Dimension.  —  This  Exercise  affords  practice  in  drawing  oblongs 
of  different  dimensions.  The  six  oblongs  required  are  to  be  i  inch 
high,  and  in  length  3  half-inches,  5  half-inches,  8  half-inches,  13  half- 
inches,  ii  half-inches,  8  half-inches,  respectively.  They  are  not  to 
be  drawn  by  measuring,  but  by  judgment.  This  would  seem  perhaps 
to  be  a  very  difficult  exercise  to  give  at  this  stage ;  but  if  taken  in 
the  right  way,  it  can  be  easily  done,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  direc- 
tions given  in  Dictation  below. 

It  is  well  that  pupils  should  learn  how  to  take  advantage  of  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed.  They  have  no  rule  to 
measure  with,  but  by  studying  the  oblong,  made  by  the  marginal 
lines,  6  inches  high  and  9  inches  wide,  in  D.  B.,  page  6,  they  can 
readily  place  on  a  blank  page  of  the  same  size,  points  for  the  corners 
of  an  oblong,  that  will  approximate  very  closely  to  6"  by  9".  Bisect- 
ing and  trisecting  will  give  the  other  points  required. 

Dictation.  —  i.  Look  at  the  oblong  made  by  the  marginal  lines  on  page  6.    How  high 

is  it?     (Six  inches.}     How  wide  is  it ?     (Nine  inches.}     Notice  how  far  the  corners 

are  from  the  corners  and  edges  of  the  page.     Place 

n»  p — • . — . • . 1     points  on  the  blank  page   for  the  corners    of   such 
I I     an   oblong,  and    imagine    the    oblong.      Bisect  the 

imaginary  left  vertical.  How  long  is  each  half  ? 
Trisect  each  half.  Into  how  many  parts  have  you 
divided  the  imaginary  vertical  ?  How  long  is  each 

« 1      r- 1     part?     Bisect  each  inch,  and  from  each -point  of  bi- 

1 . I     I I     section   just   made  .  draw  a  light   horizontal  to  the 

c  J     imaginary  right   vertical.     Trisect   the  upper  hori- 

Arrangement  of  Oblongs.  ZOntal.  Trisect  each  third.  How  long  is  each 
part?  Number  the  inches  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 

2.  Set  off  3  half-inches  (how  many  inches  ?)  from  the  left  end  of  the  upper  horizontal, 

and  draw  a  vertical  to  the  next  horizontal,  making  an  oblong  i  inch  high  and 
3  half-inches  long.  One  inch  below  make  an  oblong  i  inch  high  and  5  half- 
inches  long ;  one  inch  below  this,  an  oblong  i  inch  high  and  8  half-inches  long. 

3.  On  the  right  of  the  page,  draw  oblongs  i   inch  high  and   13  half-inches,  n  half- 

inches,  and  8  half-inches  long,  respectively,  laying  out  the  oblongs  from  the  right 
vertical. 


BOOK  ii.J  DIMENSION   AND    COLOR.  45 

Color.  —  If  this  is  to  be  used  as  a  color  as  well  as  a  dimension 
exercise,  the  relative  values  of  the  primary  pigment  colors,  yellow, 
red,  and  blue,  can  first  be  recalled  as  given  in  the  optional  exercise 
for  page  R,  Book  I.  in  the  Manual,  p.  27;  that  is,  yellow  3,  red  5, 
blue  8. 

Questions  can  then  be  asked  about  the  primary  colors  necessary  to 
make  the  secondary  colors,  orange,  green,  and  purple.  These  colors 
are  called  secondary  because  they  are  made  by  mixing  two  primary 
colors.  What  colors  would  you  use  to  make  orange  ?  ( Yellow  and 
red.)  The  relative  values  of  yellow  and  red  ?  (j  and  5.)  If  yellow 
and  red  are  mixed  to  form  orange,  what  number  will  express  the 
value  of  orange  ?  (<£.)  In  a  similar  way  the  value  of  green  may  be 
developed,  —  yellow  3,  and  blue  8,  make  green  n;  also  of  purple, — 
red  5,  blue  8,  make  purple  13. 

The  arrangement  of  the  page  can  then  be  laid  out  according  to 
the  Dictation  on  p..  44,  anH  ^—  ,  colored  iccording  to  their 

extent.  Emphasize  the  .  -  yellow  3,  red  5,  blue  8, 

purple  13,  green  u,  orange  8. 

This  lesson  can  be  carried  still  further  if  desired,  and  used  to  show 
complementary  colors.  Each  primary  color  has  its  complementary, 
made  up  of  the  other  two  primaries.  Thus  trie  complementary  of 
yellow  is  purple,  which  is  made  of  the  other  two-  primaries.  The 
page  when  colored  shows  the  complementary  of  each  primary,  in  a 
horizontal  line  with  the  primary. 

YELLOW,  Primary;  PURPLE,  its  Complementary. 

RED,  Primary ;  GREEN,  its  Complementary. 

BLUE,  Primary;  ORANGE,  its  Complementary. 

If  the  values  of  any  primary  and  its  complementary  are  added,  the 
resultant  value  is  always  the  same,  16.' 

In  mixing  colors  which  require  red,  use  carmine  or  lake  ;  vermilion 
is  not  a  good  mixing  color. 

If  colors  and  a  brush  cannot  be  used,  the  page  can  be  carried  out 
by  cutting  oblongs  from  colored  paper. 

For  fuller  treatment  of  color,  see  Appendix  on  Color,  p. 


46 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[HOOK  II. 


EXERCISE    VIII.  — Ornament.  — Square-leaved  Quatrefoil. 

From   a.  Copy. 

OBJECT.    To  study  a  simple  ornament  based  on  a  square ;  to  draw  it  enlarged. 
D.  B.,  page  7.  —  Drawing  a  square-leaved  Quatrefoil.  • 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  general  shape  of 
Fig.  i  ?  What  are  Figs.  2  and  3  ?  (Stages  in  drawing  Fig.  I.)  De- 
scribe Fig.  2.  (//  is  a  square  with  diameters  and  diagonals?)  How  do 
the  diameters  divide  the  square  ?  (Into  four  small  squares?) 

Find  the  upper  left  square  in  Fig.  3  ;  what  figure  do  you  see  in  it  ? 
{Something  like  a  leaf  with  a  midrib,  running  to  the  corner  of  the 
square?)  How  many  of  these  figures  do  you  find  in  the  square? 
(Four?)  How  are  they  placed?  (Around  the  centre  of  the  square, 
pointing  to  the  corners?)  Where  do  these  leaf-shaped  figures  meet? 
(On  the  semidiameters?)  Do  they  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  semi- 
diameters  ?  (No,  a  little  nearer  to  the  outside?)  Are  the  lines  that 
make  the  leaf-shaped  figure  straight  or  curved  ?  Look  at  the  upper 
side  of  the  square,  where  the  curves  of  the  leaf-shaped  figures  meet : 
what  shape  do  the  two  curves  together  make?  (A  deep  curve,  a 
swing,  a  loop?) 

This  flat  ornament  is  from  the  dog-tooth  moulding,  used  in  early 
English  architecture ;  three  forms  are  illustrated  below. 


Drawing.  —  Draw  the  square,  its  diagonals  and  diameters,  using  the  angles  given. 
Place  a  point  on  each  semidiameter  somewhat  nearer  to  the  side  than  to  the 
centre  of  the  square.  Practice  movement  for  each  curve,  first  oa  Fig.  i,  then 
through  the  point  placed  for  it  on  the  semidiameter,  and  draw  it.  Erase 
diameters  and  the  central  part  of  each  side  of  the  square  between  the  leaf- 
shaped  figures.  Finish  the  ornament  as  in  Fig.  i.* 

*  This  ornament  furnishes  a  very  good  exercise  in  cutting,  as  it  is  so  very  easily  laid  out. 


liOOK    II.] 


ORNAMENT   FROM    A    NATURAL    FORM. 


47 


EXERCISE  IX.  — Ornament  derived  from  a   Natural   Form. 

From    a    Copy. 

OBJECT.    To  study  an  ornament  derived  from  a  natural  form,  to  draw  it  enlarged. 
D.  B.,  page  8. — Drawing  an  Ornament. 

Study  of  the  page  by  Pupils. — What  is  Fig.  2  ?  (The  picture 
vf  a  morning-glory^}  How  do  you  recognize  it  ?  (By  the  flower?) 
Do  you  know  the  shape  of  the  leaf?  How  many  leaves  are  there 
in  the  picture  ?  Look  at  the  lower  one  on  the  left ;  what  is  the  shape  ? 
(Heart-shaped?}  And  what  is  the  shape  •  of  the  upper  leaf  on  the  left  ? 
What  is  Fig.  i  like  in  general  shape?  Compare  Fig.  i  and  the  leaf?* 

Draw  the  axis  of  the  copy.  How  does  an  axis  divide  a  figure  ? 
(Info  two  equal  parts?}  It  is  therefore  called  an  axis  of  symmetry. 
Notice  the  beauty  of  the  curves;  practice  them  on  the  copy  with  both 
hands.  Can  you  draw  the  figure  on  the  board  with  both  hands? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  upon  the  copy  a  vertical  as  a  centre  line  and  a  horizontal 
through  the  greatest  width.  In  the  space  at  the  right  draw  a  vertical 
connecting  the  points  given.  Draw  an  indefinite  horizontal  to  show  where 
the  greatest  width  of  the  figure  should  be.  Practice  movement  for  the  left 
curve  and  draw  with  free  movement,  —  repeat  for  the  right  curve,  —  the  same 
for  the  curves  of  the  stem.  Erase  construction  lines  and  finish  freely. 


*  The  border,  Fig.  3,  made  by  repetition,   is   very   suitable   and   effective   for   outline   embroidery 
Encourage  all  efforts  at  hand  work  by  the  children. 


48 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[!100K    II. 


EXERCISE  X.  —  Decorative  Design.  —  Units.  —  Arrangement  around 

a  Center. 

OBJECT.    To   study  a   unit,  and   ways   of   modifying   it;   to   arrange   units   around   a 
centre,  and,  complete  the  design  by  a  central  figure ;  to  draw  the  arrangement. 

Study  by  Pupils.  —  What  original  arrangements  did  you  make  in 
Book  I.?  {Original  arrangements  were  made  for  borders)  How  did 
you  make  them  ?  (By  repeating  a  figure  horizontally)  In  what  other 
way  can  you  repeat  a  figure  ?  (Around  a  centred)  A  figure  used  for 
repetition  in  decoration  is  called  a  unit  of  design, 

Open  your  books  at  page  M.  A  very  simple  unit  of  design  on  its 
construction  lines  is  given.  How  could  you  make  a  different  unit 
on  the  same  construction  lines  without  changing  the  number  of  lines 
in  the  outline  ?  (By  changing  straight  lines  to  curves?)  If  you  change 
a  straight  line  to  a  curved  line  on  one  side  of  the  axis  of  symmetry, 
what  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  symmetric  unit?  (The  opposite 
side  should  be  changed  in  the  same,  way) 

D.  B.,  page  M.  — Practice  page  for  Ex.  X. 

Practice.  —  On  the  construction  lines  given,  a  symmetric  unit  differing  in  outline 
from  the  printed  unit  is  required.  Modify  the  outline  by  substituting  curved 
lines  wholly  or  in  part  for  the  straight  lines  of  the  printed  unit.  The  lines 
may  curve  in  or  out,  although  they  should  curve  but  little.  Practice  movement 
for  the  curves  before  drawing.  No  erasing. 


D.  B.,  page  N .  —  Second  practice  page  for  Ex.  X. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils. — Look  again  at  the  unit 
on  page  M.  What  part  of  the  axis  is  above  the  horizontal  and  what 
part  below  ?  (One  third  above  and  two  thirds  below.}  How  could 


JBOOK    II.] 


DECORATIVE    DESIGN. 


49 


you  obtain  the  point  where  the  horizontal  crosses  the  axis  ?  (By 
trisecting  the  axis?)  How  long  is  the  horizontal  compared  with  the 
axis  ?  (Two  thirds  as  long  as  the  axis.) 

Practice.  — Two  verticals  are  given  for  the  axes  of  two  units.  Trisect  each  axis,  and 
through  the  upper  points  of  trisection  draw  horizontals  two  thirds  as  long  as  the 
axis.  Upon  these  construction  lines  draw  two  other  modifications  of  the  unit  on 
page  M,  by  substituting  carved  lines  for  straight.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  9.  —  Arranging  units  for  a  design  and  drawing  it. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  .the  shape  of  Fig. 
i?  (The  shape  of  a  quatrefoil?)  What  do  you  see  within  the  quatre- 
foil?  (Units  arranged  about  a  centre;  —  the  unit,  Fig.  2 ;  —  there  is  also 
a  circle  in  the  centred)  The  figure  in  the  centre  of  a  design,  that 
seems  to  hold  the  units  together,  is  called  a  centra/  figure. 

Arrangement.  —  How  long  is  the  axis  of  Fig.  2?  (Two  inches?) 
Select  one  of  the  units  you  drew  on  pages  M  and  N,  and  cut  out 
of  colored  paper  four,  such  units,  having  an  axis  of  two  inches.  Draw 
the  diameters  of  the  quatrefoil,  Fig.  5.  Arrange  the  units  to  meet 
at  the  centre  of  Fig.  5,  and  paste  them  only  at  the  centre.  What 
does  the  design  need  to  look  well  ?  (A  central  figure  of  suitable  size?) 
Cut  one  like  Fig.  3  or  Fig.  4  and  paste  on  the  design. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  diameters  of  Fig.  6.  On  these  diameters  draw  the  design 
arranged  in  Fig.  5.  Draw  the  units  by  opposites.  Erase  diameters  and 
lines  within  the  central  figure.  Finish.  This  design  may  be  colored  orange. 
Orange  is  made  by  mixing  red  and  yellow  together. 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  ii. 


EXERCISE    XI.  — Boxes.  — Two   Views   Reviewed. 

MODELS  :  Cylinder,  Square  Prism,  Boxes  mado  by  Pupils. 
OBJECT.    To  recall  top  and  front  views  by  objects  made  by  the  pupils. 

Review  Exercise  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  a  vertical  cylinder?  (A 
cylinder  standing  on  one  of  its  plane  faces.)  What  would  you  draw  for 
its  top  view?  (A  circle.)  For  its  front  view?  (An  oblong.)  What  is 
a  horizontal  cylinder?  (A  cylinder  lying  on  its  curved  face,  —  i,  from 
front  to  back;  2,  from  left  to  right;  3,  obliquely?)  What  would  you  draw 
for  the  front  view  of  a  horizontal  cylinder,  lying  from  left  to  right  ? 
(An  oblong.)  For  the  end  view  ?  (A  circle^  Observe  in  the  same 
way  a  horizontal  square  prism,  lying  from  left  to  right. 

D.  B.,  page  O.—  Practice  page  for  Ex.  XI. 

Practice.  — The  front  view  of  a  cylinder,  horizontal  from  left  to  right,  is  given. 
Draw  the  end  view.  Continue  the  horizontals  of  the  front  view,  —  draw  a  ver- 
tical diameter  through  the  centre  given,  —  draw  the  horizontal  diameter,  — 
practice  movement  for  the  circle  and  draw  it. 

Draw  the  front  and  right  end  views  of  a  horizontal  square  prism  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  cylinder,  lying  from  left  to  right.  Where  should  these  views 
be  placed  to  make  the  page  look  well?  First  draw  horizontals  across  the 
page,  —  then  verticals,  for  the  front  and  end  views.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  10.  —  Drawing    the    top    and  front  views  of  Two  Boxes. 
Making.  —  Cut  out  the   patterns  given  on  page  S,  and  make   the 
three  boxes.      Decide  on  the  two  that  you  prefer. 

Drawing.  —  The  front  view  of  one  of  these  boxes  is  given.  Above  it  draw 
the  top  view  of  one  of  those  that  you  prefer.  At  the  right,  draw  the  front 
and  top  views  of  the  other  box  chosen. 


1 

6 

9 

D.  B.,  page  O,  completed 


D.  B.,  page  10,  completed. 


BOOK    II.] 


VASE    FORM. 


EXERCISE    XII.  — Vase    Form. 

From  a  Model  or   Copy. 
OBJECT.    To  study  a  vase  form;  to  practice  reversed  curves,  to  draw  a  vase  form. 

Study  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  figure  on  page  1 1  ?  (A  vase 
form.)  What  can  you  say  of  the  curves  of  the  sides  ?  (They  curve 
first  one  way,  then  another.)  Such  curves  are  called  reversed  .curves ; 
the  sides  of  the  form  are  called  profiles.  What  is  the  height  of  the 
figure  ?  And  the  width  at  top  and  bottom  ?  The  proportion  of  width 
to  height?  (i  to  2.)  Trace  the  profiles  on  the  copy  with  both  hands. 
Can  you  draw  the  vase  on  the  board  with  both  hands  ? 

D.    B.,  page   P.  — Practice  page  for  Ex.  XII. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  purpose  of 
the  verticals  on  the  vase  form  on  page  P?  (The  central  line  is  the 
axis,  the  two  outside  verticals  show  the  general  proportion  and  are  con- 
struction lines  for  the  profiles?)  Of  the  short  horizontals  ?  (To  show 
the  altitude  of  the  curves.)  Is  the  vase  sharp  at  the  lip? 

Practice.  —  Connect  the  given  points  by  verticals.  Bisect  each  vertical,  and  bi- 
sect each  half;  that  is,  quadrisect  each  ver- 
tical. On  the  verticals  at  the  left,  curves 
like  the  left  profile  of  the  vase  are  to  be 
drawn ;  on  the  verticals  at  the  right,  curves 
like  the  right  profile  of  the  vase.  Draw  the 
altitudes  of  the  curves.  Trace  the  move- 
ment for  each  curve  on  the  printed  copy, 
then  over  the  printed  vertical,  —  then  draw 
the  curve  with  unbroken  motion.  No  erasing.  D.  B.,  page  P,  completed. 

D.  B.,  page  i?.  — Drawing  the   Vase   Form. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  does  the  printed 
horizontal  show?  (The  width  of  the  vase?}  What  should  you  draw 
first?  (The  axis)  And  then?  (The  side  verticals;  the  lower  hori- 
zontals; quadrisect  the  verticals ;  draw  the  altitudes  of  the  curves. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  above.     Practice  movement  for  each  curve, 
and  draw  with  unbroken  motion.     Erase  construction  lines  and  finish. 


52  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  II. 

EXERCISE    XIII.  — Leaf    from    Nature. 

MODEL  :  Leaf  brought  by  each  Pupil. 

NOTE.  —  The  leaves  brought  by  pupils  for  this  exercise  should  be  not  less  than 
three  inches  from  apex  to  base,  simple  in  form,  and  not  deeply  divided.  It  would  be 
well  for  each  pupil  to  bring  two  or  three  leaves  of  a  kind,  so  as  to  study  the  character- 
istics of  a  leaf  in  more  than  one  example. 

OBJECT.    To  study  a  natural  leaf,  to  see  and  draw  its  outline. 

Study  of  Leaves  by  Pupils.  —  A  leaf,  perfectly  developed,  has 
three  parts,  —  the  blade,  which  is  broad  and  thin ;  the  petiole,  or  leaf- 
stalk ;  and  the  stipules,  leaf-like  parts,  often  found  at  the  base  of  the 
stalk.  Find  the  blade  of  your  leaf ;  find  the  petiole  or  leaf-stalks ;  has 
it  any  stipules?  A  good  illustration  of  the  parts  of  a  leaf,  and  also 
of  the  principal  toothed  margins,  serrate,  dentate,  crenate,  undulate,  will 
be  found  in  the  large  plate  "Margins  and  Parts  of  Leaves,"  belong- 
ing to  Prang's  Natural  History  Series. 

Where  is  the  apex  of  the  leaf?  The  end  of  the  stem  next  the 
leaf-stalk  is  called  the  base.  What  is  the  shape  of  your  leaf?  Is  it 
broadest  at  the  apex,  the  base,  or  in  the  middle  ? 

Where  is  the  midrib  ?  In  the  plantain  leaf,  given  in  Book  I.,  there 
are  strong  ribs;  in  most  leaves  the  ribs  are  smaller  and  are  called  veins. 
Look  at  the  principal  veins  in  your  leaf ;  do  they  start  from  the  base  of 
the  leaf  or  from  the  midrib  ? 

Find  the  best  leaf  that  you  have,  and  lay  it  on  the  desk.  Beginning 
at  the  apex  of  the  leaf  with  the  forefinger  of  each  hand  trace  around  the 
margin  of  the  leaf  and  down  the  stalk  in  sweeping  curves.  Trace  the 
midrib  in  straight  lines.  Trace  the  margin  again,  but  this  time  trace 
with  long  straight  lines,  not  more  than  four  on  a  side,  fewer  if  possible. 
Trace  the  principal  veins  in  straight  lines. 

D.  B.,  page  Q. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  XIII. 

Practice.  —  Place  your  leaf  on  page  12.  Draw  on  page  Q,  the  midrib  in  two  straight 
lines.  Block  in  the  leaf ;  that  is,  draw  it  in  straight  lines,  first  the  left  side,  then 
the  right  side,  adding  the  leaf-stalk  and  a  very  few  of  the  principal  veins,  not 
more  than  three  on  a  side,  in  straight  lines. 


BOOK   II. J 


LEAF  FROM   NATURE. 


53 


D.  B.,  page  12.  —  Drawing  the  outline  of  a  Leaf. 

Observation  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  A  linden  leaf.  Has 
any  one  such  a  leaf?  Is  the  margin  cf  the  leaf  unbroken,  that  is, 
entire ;  or  is  it  notched  or  toothed  ?  Which  way  do  the  teeth  point, 
toward  the  apex,  toward  the  base,  or  outward  ? 

The  margin  of  a  linden  leaf  is  toothed;  in  the  real  leaf,  the  little  teeth 
are  quite  close  together.  In  making  the  picture  of  a  leaf,  the  teeth  are 
only  indicated  now  and  then,  as  in  Fig.  i  ;  but  although  the  teeth  should 
be  only  suggested  in  a  drawing,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  retain 
the  characteristic  shape  and  direction  of  the  teeth,  whether  curved  or 
pointed,  whether  pointing  upward,  outward,  or  downward.  If  the  teeth 
were  all  represented  in  the  picture,  the  attention  would  be  drawn 
from  the  beauty  of  the  general  shape,  and  of  the  strong  curvature, 
and  would  be  fixed  on  the  details  of  the  margin.  So  also  if  all  the 
veins  were  carefully  drawn  in,  the  effect  of  the  leaf  as  a  beautiful 
figure  would  be  lost. 


Fig.  x. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3- 


Fig.  4. 


The  several  stages  of  drawing  a  leaf  are  given  here :  Fig.  i,  shape 
blocked  in;  Fig.  2,  the  veins  added  in  straight  lines;  Fig.  3,  the 
curves  drawn;  Fig.  4,  the  leaf  completed. 

Drawing.  —  Place  your  leaf  over  Fig.  i  in  the  drawing-book.  Block  it  in  as  on  the 
practice  page.  Draw  the  curves  over  the  blocking-in  lines.  Erase  the  blocking- 
in,  and  finish  in  broad,  soft  lines,  indicating  a  tooth  now  and  then,  —  or  colrr  't. 


54  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.  [BOOK  ir. 


LANGUAGE. 

Teachers  should  continue  to  give  pupils  practice  in  the  use  of  the 
terms  and  names  on  page  28  as  well  as  of  those  given  below,  always 
requiring  complete  sentences. 

Terms   of   Relation,    Proportion,   Views. 

RELATION.  —  Parallel,  perpendicular. 

PROPORTION.  —  i  to  2,  2  to  i,  4  to  2,  etc. 

VIEWS.  —  Left  end  view,  right  end  view,  bottom  view. 

Names   of   Models,    Objects,   Arrangements,    and    Details. 

SPHERE;  round  face. 
CYLINDER;  curved  face,  plane  face. 
SQUARE  PRISM  ;  parallel  faces,  perpendicular  faces. 
VASE  FORM;  profiles. 

OBLONG  ;  diameter,  diagonal,  semidiameter,  semidiagonal. 
CURVES;  altitude,  reversed  curves. 

ARRANGEMENT  ;    axis    of    symmetry,   unit   of   design,   central  figure ;  square- 
leaved  quatrefoil. 
POTATO,  SQUASH;  eyes,  ribs. 

LEAF;  blade,  petiole,  stipule;  base,  veins;  entire  margin. 
COLOR;  orange,  green,  purple. 


BOOK     III. 


IN  Books  I.  and  II.  the  exercises  are  arranged  for  the  study  of  the 
facts,  appearance,  and  decoration  of  form,  but  without  specified  refer- 
ence to  these  three  divisions.  In  Books  III.  to  V.  the  exercises  are 
arranged  specifically  under  the  three  heads,  Construction,  Representa- 
tion, and  Decoration ;  and  the  exercises  given  under  these  three  heads 
lead  to  Working-Drawings  and  Constructive  Design,  to  Pictorial  Draw- 
ing and  Composition,  to  the  Drawing  of  Ornament  and  Decorative 
Design. 

CONSTRUCTION  (SOLIDS:  Ellipsoid,  Ovoid,  Equi.  Tri.  Prism. 

-j  TABLETS  :  Ellipse,  Oval,  Triang-les. 
Facts  of  Form. 

(  MAKING :  Cylinder,  Equi.  Tri.  Prism,  Toy  House. 

REPRESENTATION.       j  FRUIT,    CYLINDER,   COVERED    BOX. 
Appearance  of  Form.      (  COMPOSITION.    Groups  of  Fruit  and  Objects. 

DECORATION  (ROSETTES;    MOORISH   ORNAMENT. 

\  DECORATIVE  DESIGN.    Surface  Covering,  Mod- 
Ornamentation  of  Form.    J 

I       iflcation  of  Units,  Flower  Form. 


Drawing. 

Language.— (See  page  88.) 

Color.  — (See  pages  74,  75.) 

55 


56  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

THE    THREE     SUBJECT    DIVISIONS     OF    FORM 
STUDY    AND    DRAWING. 

THE  study  of  Form  and  Drawing  includes  three  distinct  yet  corre- 
lated subjects;  — 

CONSTRUCTION,  the  science  and  art  of  making  diagrams  or  working-drawings, 
which  give  the  facts  of  objects,  and  from  which  objects  may  be  con- 
structed. 

REPRESENTATION,  the  science  and  art  of  delineating  or  representing  objects 
as  they  appear  to  the  eye. 

DECORATION,  the  science  and  art  of  producing  beauty  in  ornament. 

These  subjects  require  the  study  of  objects  and  examples,  and  Draw- 
ing is  used  as  a  means  of  expressing  ideas  gained  by  such  study. 

It  frequently  happens  that  instruction  in  Drawing  is  confined  to 
one  or  perhaps  two  of  these  subjects. 

Pupils  are  sometimes  given  only  the  study  of  the  facts  of  form; 
such  pupils  become,  through  this  one-sided  study,  almost  insensible 
to  the  appearance  of  form  and  also  remain  wholly  uncultivated  in  the 
recognition  and  appreciation  of  beauty  in  farm  and  ornament. 

In  other  cases,  pupils  are  given  only  the  study  of  the  appearance  of 
objects,  without  any  foundational  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  form ;  they 
are  left  completely  ignorant  of  the  broad  uses  of  drawing  in  industry ; 
and  know  nothing  of  the  elements  of  beauty  in  ornament. 

In  still  other  cases,  the  instruction  in  drawing  tends  wholly  to  deco- 
rative design,  leaving  out  of  consideration  entirely  the  study  of  objects 
either  as  to  their  facts  or  their  appearance. 

Any  course  of  Drawing,  therefore,  which  does  not  give  well-balanced 
and  closely  connected  instruction  in  the  three  subjects,  Construction, 
Representation,  Decoration,  and  which  does  not  also  lead  to  the  appre- 
ciation of  beautiful  form  in  each  of  the  three  subjects,  can  produce 
only  very  imperfect  and  one-sided  results. 


BOOK  in  J  CONSTRUCTION.  57 

CONSTRUCTION ; 

OE,  DRAWING  AS  APPLIED  IN  CONVEYING  IDEAS  OF  THE  PACTS  OF  OBJECTS, 

Of  the  three  subjects  Construct/on,  Representation,  and  Decora- 
tion, Construction  is  the  one  upon  which  the  others  should  be  built.  It 
deals  with  the  facts  of  form,  and  shows  the  use  which  is  made  of  the 
drawing  of  these  facts,  in  the  world  of  industry.  Its  importance,  both 
educationally  and  practically,  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

Construction  is  the  science  and  art  of  making  drawings  which  give 
the  facts  of  objects  and  from  which  objects  may  be  constructed. 
These  are  called  working-drawings,  and  are  necessary  to  guide  the 

workman  in  nearly  every  branch  of  manufacture. 

• 

A  Working- Drawing.  —A  working-drawing  is  a  drawing  which  gives  all  the  facts  of 
form,  size,  and  structure  of  an  object.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  a  workman  with 
accuracy  all  the  facts  of  an  object  which  is  to  be  made.  This  object  may  be  one 
already  made  or  it  may  exist  only  in  the  brain  of  the  inventor  or  designer. 

A  working-drawing  is,  therefore,  composed  of  as  many  different  geometric  views  of 
an  object  as  are  necessary  to  the  complete  understanding  of  the  object. 

A  geometric  view  shows  an  object  under  the  simplest  possible  conditions;  that 
is,  as  seen  with  but  two  dimensions.  For  such  a  view,  the  object  is  supposed 
to  be  placed  directly  in  front  of  the  eye  in  such  a  way  that  two  dimensions  only 
are  visible ;  for  example,  a  cube  may  be  presented  in  such  a  way  that  the  front 
face  alone  —  a  square  —  is  seen  with  its  two  dimensions,  height  and  width. 

The  different  views  required  in  a  working-drawing  are  named  from  the  part  repre- 
sented in  the  view ;  thus  the  front  view  represents  the  view  obtained  by  looking 
directly  at  the  front  of  the  object ;  the  top  view  represents  the  view  obtained  by 
looking  directly  down  upon  the  object ;  and  so  on  with  the  other  views. 

In  Books  I.  and  II.  the  facts  of  form  of  models  and  objects  as  shown 
in  various  views,  are  studied  as  a  means  of  gaining  a  complete  knowl- 
edge of  type  forms  and  as  leading  to  observation  of  form  in  general. 
The  study  of  the  facts  of  form  is  continued  in  Books  III.,  IV.,  and 
V.,  but  the  study  is  further  developed  so  that  pupils  completing  Book  V. 
will  be  able  to  make  working-drawings  from  simple  objects ;  and  also 
to  read,  and  to  design  simple  working-drawings. 


58  TEACHERS  MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  A. 
(Use  Manual  Text  for  Book  I.  page  D.) 

Drawing-Book,  page  B. 
OBJECT.    Practice  in  drawing  oblique  lines  from  point  to  point  with  free  arm  movement. 

Practice.  —  Draw  an  oblique  line  from  i  to  c,  draw  lines  parallel  to  this  from  2,  3,  4^ 

5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10  to/,  g  and  the  successive  points 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

Draw  an  oblique  line  from  c  tog, draw  lines  parallel 
to  this  from  o,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  to  the  succes- 
sive points  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  and  from 
8  to  10. 

Practice  movement  for  each  line  before  drawing. 
Draw  with  one  movement.  The  object  is  to 

secure  free  movement. 
D.  B.,  page  B,  completed. 


EXERCISE    I.  —  Ellipsoid.  —  Two    Views. 

MODELS :  Sphere,  Ellipsoid,  Circle,  Ellipse. 
OBJECT.    To  study  the  form  of  an  ellipsoid,  to  see  and  to  draw  two  views. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  (The  sphere  and  ellipsoid 
presented.)  Take  the  two  models ;  in  what  way  does  the  new  model 
resemble  the  sphere  ?  In  what  way  does  it  differ  ?  This  model  is 
called  an  ellipsoid. 

Hold  the  ellipsoid  vertical ;  how  much  of  its  face  can  you  see  ? 
Trace  on  the  model  the  outline  of  the  part  that  you  see.  Find  or 
cut  a  tablet  having  the  shape  of  the  outline.  Hold  the  tablet  ver- 
tical, facing  you;  how  do  its  two  diameters  compare?  (The  vertical 
diameter  is  longer  than  the  horizontal  diameter.)  Compare  the  curve 
of  the  outline  at  the  ends  of  the  vertical  diameter  with  the  curve  of 
the  outline  at  the  ends  of  the  horizontal  diameter;  can  you  describe 
the  curve  ?  This  figure  is  called  an  ellipse. 


BOOK    III.] 


CONSTRUCTION.  —  TWO    VIEWS. 


59 


Hold  the  ellipsoid  vertical ;  what  would  you  draw  for  the  front  view  ? 
(An  ellipse?)  For  the  left  and  right  views  ?  (Ellipses.)  Look  down  upon 
the  ellipsoid  ;  what  would  you  draw  for  the  top  view  ?  (A  circle.) 

D.  B.,  page  C. —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  I. 

Practice.  —  The  front  view  of  an  ellipsoid  is  given;  the  left,  top,  and  right  views  are 
required.     Draw  first  the  top  view.     Its  centre  is  given;   to  fix  the  width  of  the  top 
view  and  the  place  of   its    vertical    diameter,  draw 
three  indefinite  verticals,  practicing  movement  up- 
ward from  the  front  view  and  drawing  downward. 
Draw  the  horizontal  diameter  and  fix  the  length  of 
the   vertical    diameter.      Practice    movement    for    a 
circle  and  -draw  the  top  view  at  one  sweep. 
The  diameters  are  printed  for  the  left  side  view.     Draw 
the  diameters  lor  the  right  side  view,  using  the  point 
D.  B.,  page  C,  completed.  givenvand  obtaining  all  the  points  possible  by  move- 

ment from  the  front  view.  Practice  the  movement  for  an  ellipse  on  the  front- 
view,  and  over  the  given  diameters,  then  draw  the  left  side  view,  —  the  same 
for  the  right  side  view.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  1.  —  Drawing  two  Views  of  an  Ellipsoid. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  does  the  illustration 
in  the  drawing-book  represent?  Can  you  mention  something  else 
like  an  ellipsoid  ? 

Drawing.  — The  diameters  of  the  front  view  of  an  ellipsoid  and  the  centre  of  its 
top  view  are  given.  Draw  the  two  views  according  to  the  directions  for  prac- 
tice, page  C,  and  finish  the  circle  and  ellipse  in  broad,  gray  lines. 


6o 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


("HOOK   in. 


EXERCISE    II.  — Ovoid.  — Three    Views. 

MODELS:  Ellipsoid,  Ovoid,  Ellipse,  Oval. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  form  of  an  ellipsoid;  to  see  and  to  draw  three  views  of  the 
ellipsoid. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils. —  (Ellipsoid  and  Ovoid  used.) 
Shut  your  eyes,  take  one  model  in  one  hand,  and  one  in  the  other; 
are  they  alike  ?  Can  you  name  either  one  without  looking  at  it  ? 
Hold  up  the  ellipsoid ;  how  does  the  other  model  differ  from  the 
ellipsoid?  In  what  way  is  it  like  the  ellipsoid?  Hold  the  two  models 
vertical;  what  is  the  proportion  of  the  width  to  the  height  of  the 
ellipsoid  ?  of  the  other  model  ?  This  new  model  is  called  an  ovoid. 
Which  end  should  be  at  the  top  in  the  vertical  ovoid  ?  (The  larger 
end^)  Trace  the  outline  of  the  vertical  ovoid  in  the  air.  Notice  the 
beauty  of  the  form,  produced  by  the  subtile  changes  in  curvature  and 
by  the  contrast  between  the  upper  and  lower  part. 

Find  a  tablet  having  the  shape  of  the  outline.  Hold  it  vertical, 
facing  you.  Look  at  the  curves  of  the  outline  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom and  at  the  sides ;  can  you  describe  the  curves  ? 

This  figure  is  called  an  oval.  Where  is  the  widest  part  of  a  vertical 
ellipse  ?  of  a  vertical  oval  ? 

D.  B.,  page  D. —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  II. 

Practice.  —  The  front  view  of  an  ovoid  is  given;  the  left,  top,  and  right  views  are 
required.     Draw  first  the   top  view.     Its  centre  is  given ;  fix  its  width  and  the 
place  of  its  vertical  diameter ;  draw  three  indefinite  verticals,  practicing  move  \ 
ment  upward  from  the  front  view  and  drawing  downward  with  free  movement. 


D.  B.,  page  D,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  i,  completed. 


BOOK    III.] 


CONS  TR  UC  TION.  —  THREE    VIE  WS. 


6l 


Draw  the  horizontal  diameter  and  fix  the  length  of  the  vertical  diameter.  .Practice 
movement  for  a  circle,  and  draw  the  top  view  at  one  sweep.  Construction  lines 
are  printed  for  the  left  side  view.  Draw  similar  lines  for  the  right  side  view, 
using  the  point  given  and  obtaining  all  the  points  possible  by  movement  from 
the  front  view.  Practice  the  movement  for  an  oval  on  the  front  view  and  over 
the  given  lines ;  then  draw  the  left  side  view,  —  the  same  for  the  right  side  view. 
No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  1.  —  Drawing  two  Views  of  the  Ovoid. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  does  the  picture  in 
the  drawing-book  represent  ?  Do  you  know  the  story  of  Columbus 
and  the  egg?  Upon  which  end  did  he  make  the  egg  stand? 

Can  you  think  of  any  objects  like  an  ovoid? 


Drawing.  —  The  front  view  of  a  vertical  ovoid  is  given,  also  a  point  for  the  centre 
of  the  top  view,  and  for  the  diameter  of  the  right  side  view.  Draw  the  top  and 
right  side  views,  getting  dimensions  as  far  as  possible  by  movement  from  the 
front  view,  and  finish  the  circle  and  oval  in  broad  lines. 


62  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 


EXERCISE    III.  — Equilateral    Triangular    Prism.  —  Drawing    the 

Pattern. 

MODELS:  Square  and  Equi.  Tri.  Prisms,  Square, and  Equilateral  Triangle. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangular  prism,  to  learn  the  shape  of 
an  equilateral  triangle,  to  make  the  model,  and  to  draw  the  pattern  of  an  equilateral  tri- 
angular prism. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Place  the  square  prism  and 
equi.  tri.  prism  upright  and  facing  you.  How  do  these  two  models 
resemble  each  other?  (They are  each  twice  as  high  as  wide.)  In  what 
other  way  do  they  resemble  each  other  ?  (In  each  model,  the  ends  are 
parallel  to  each  other  and  just  alike  ;  the  faces  between  the  ends  are  oblongs^} 
(The  teacher  gives  the  name  prism  for  both  models.) 

The  prisms  are  standing  upright ;  upon  what  part  does  each  stand  ? 
(On  the  end.)  The  part  on  which  a  solid  rests  is  called  its  base ;  as 
a  prism  can  stand  upon  one  end  as  well  as  upon  the  other,  each  end 
is  called  a  base.  (The  teacher  develops  the  name  square  prism  from 
the  shape  of  its  bases ;  also  triangle  and  triangular  prism  through 
comparison  of /the  bases  of  the  two  prisms,  and  of  the  corresponding 
tablets  ;  and  equilateral  triangle  and  equilateral  triangular  prism  by 
study  of  the  tablet  and  the  prism  and  other  triangles  cut  from  paper. 

Illustrations  are  given  here  (for  the  teacher's  use)  of  the  three 
kinds  of  triangles  named  from  the  relative  length  of  their  sides. 
Fig.  i,  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  three  sides  being  equal;  Fig.  2,  an 
isosceles  triangle,  having  two  equal  sides ;  Fig.  3,  a  scalene  triangle, 
having  no  two  of  its  sides  equal. 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  «.  Fig.  3. 

Making  the  Pattern.  —  (The  teacher  recalls  or  develops  the  idea 
of  a  pattern,  as  suggested  on  page  24.)  How  many  faces  has  the 
equi.  tri.  prism  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  each  face  ?  What  is  a  tri- 
angle ?  (A  triangle  is  a  figure  having  three  sides  and  three  angles?) 


BOOK  in.]  CONSTRUCTION.— PATTERN.  63 

What  is  an  equilateral  triangle  ?  (A  triangle  having  its  sides  and 
angles  equal.)  Find  two  among  the  tablets ;  how  does  the  height  com- 
pare with  the  length  of  the  sides  ?  What  is  an  oblong  ?  (An  oblong 
is  a  figure  having  four  straight  sides  and  four  right  angles,  with  only  its 
opposite  sides  equal.)  Of  what  figures  would  you  make  the  pattern  of 
an  equi.  tri.  prism  ?  (Of  three  oblongs  and  two  equilateral  triangles?) 

JD.  B.,  page  E.  —Practice  page  for  Ex.  III. 

Practice.  —  From  2  and  6  draw  verticals  6  inches  long.  Trisect  the  left  vertical. 
From  the  upper  end  of  the  vertical,  from  the  points  of  trisection  and  from 
the  lower  end  of  the  vertical,  draw  horizontals  to  meet  the  second  vertical, 
making  three  oblong  faces.  Use  the  middle  third  of  each  vertical  as  the  base 
of  an  equilateral  triangle  pointing  outward,  and  draw  its  sides  equal  in  length 
to  the  base.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  S. — Making  a  hollow  Equilateral  Triangular  Prism. 

What  is  printed  on  this  page  ?  (The  pattern  of  an  equi.  tri.  prism.) 
Detach  the  page  and  cut  out  the  pattern,  taking  care  not  to  cut  off 
the  laps.  Write  your  name  neatly  on  an  oblong  face.  Fold  the  pat- 
tern so  as  to  make  an  equi.  tri.  prism  and  paste  it  together. 

-D.  J3.,  page  2.  —  Drawing  the  Pattern. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  Fig.  2  ? 
Fig.  3  ?  Having  the  length  of  an  oblong  face  of  an  equi.  tri.  prism, 
twice  as  high  as  wide,  given,  how  would  you  draw  the  pattern  ? 

Drawing.  —  The  two  printed  angles  show  the  length  of  an  oblong  face.  Draw  a 
horizontal  to  connect  the  angles.  Draw  an  indefinite  vertical  from  each  ena 
of  the  horizontal.  Bisect  the  horizontal.  Point  off  on  the  left  vertical  three 
distances  equal  to  half  the  horizontal,  and  from  the  points  draw  horizontals. 
Complete  as  above,  finishing  the  triangles  and  oblongs  in  broad  lines. 


64  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

EXERCISE    IV.  —  Equilateral  Triangular  Prism.  —  Three  Views. 

MODEL :  Equi.   Tri.  Prism. 

OBJECT.  To  study  three  views  of  the  horizontal  equi.  tri.  prism,  to  draw  the  end, 
front,  and  top  views. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Place  the  equi.  tri.  prism  on 
the  desk,  horizontal  from  left  to  right ;  what  would  you  draw  for  the 
left  end  view  ?  (An  equilateral  triangle?)  What  would  you  draw  for  the 
front  view  ?  (An  oblong?)  How  long  should  the  oblong  be  ?  (Twice  as 
long  as  the  width  of  the  left  end  view  at  the  base.)  How  high  should  it 
be  ?  (As  high  as  the  left  end  view?) 

Look  down  on  the  prism ;  how  many  long  edges  can  you  see  ? 
(Three?)  How  wide  does  the  top  view  look  from  left  to  right  com- 
pared with  the  front  view?  how  wide  from  front  to  back?  What 
would  you  draw  for  the  top  view?  (An  oblong  with  its  long  diameter?) 
How  long  should  this  oblong  be  ?  (As  long  as  the  front  view?)  How 
high  should  it  be  ?  (As  high  as  the  base  line  of  the  left  end  view  is 
long?)  Compare  the  top  and  front  views ;  how  do  they  differ  ? 

D.  B.,  page  F. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  IV. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  Stand  the  equi.  tri.  tablet 
facing   you;    on    what  part  does  it  rest?     (On  an  edge,  on  the  base?) 
Can  you   think   of    a   name  for  the   top  of  the  triangle  ?     (The  point, 
the  apex?)     This   is  also  called  vertex.     How  far  is 
the  vertex   from  the   ends  of  the  base  ?     (As  far  as 
the  length   of  the  base?)     What  is  the   height   of   the 
triangle  called?     (Its  altitude?) 

Can  you  draw  an  equilateral  triangle  on  the  board  ? 
How  should  the  sides  of  an  equilateral  triangle  com- 
pare in  length  ?  Draw  a  horizontal  for  the  base  of 
the  triangle  and  bisect  it.  Draw  an  indefinite  vertical  to  the  point 
of  bisection.  On  this  vertical  place  a  point  for  the  vertex,  as  far 
from  the  ends  of  the  base  as  the  length  of  the  base,  and  draw  the 
two  sides. 


HOOK    III.] 


CONSTR  UCTION.  —  THREE    VIE  WS. 


Practice. —  The  left  end,  front  and  top  views  of  an  equi.  tri.  prism,  placed  hori- 
zontal from  left  to  right,  are  required.  A  horizontal  is  printed  for  the  base 
of  the  left  end  view.  Draw  the  left  end  view  according  to  the  directions  just 
given. 

From  the  vertex  and  the  base  draw  indefinite  horizontals,  to  the  right.  Draw  the 
verticals  for  the  front  view,  using  the  given  angle  and  judging  the  proper 
length  of  the  oblong. 

Draw  the  verticals  for  the  top  view,  using  the  given  angle.  Judge  the  proper 
height  of  the  oblong,  and  draw  the  three  horizontals  needed. 

D.  B.,  page  3.—  Drawing  Three  Views  of  an  Equilateral  Triangular 
Prism. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  does  the  picture 
n  the  drawing-book  represent  ?  What  can  you  see  or  mention  that 
s  like  an  equi.  tri.  prism  ? 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  the  practice  page.  Complete  with  a  broad, 
soft,  gray  line. 


D 


66  [BOOK  IIL 

REPRESENTATION; 

OB,  DRAWING  AS  APPLIED  IN  REPRESENTING  THE  APPEARANCE  OF  OBJECTS. 

Representation  is  the  science  and  art  of  delineating  or  represent 
ing  objects  as  they  appear  to  the  eye.  The  study  of  the  facts  of  form 
of  objects  in  Construction  prepares  the  pupil  for  the  study  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  objects  in  Representation.  Representation  is  the  comple- 
ment to  Construction,  and  follows  it  legitimately. 

The  principles  of  the  two  subjects  are,  however,  widely  different. 
For  Construction  requires  two  or  more  geometric  views,  each  from  a 
different  stand-point,  while  Representation  requires  one  pictorial  view: 
from  a  single  stand-point. 

Before  attempting  exercises  in  Representation  with  pupils,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  plain  to  them  that  the  appearance  of  the  form  of  an 
object,  seen  from  one  stand-point,  may  be  very  different  from  the  facts] 
of  its  form.  The  fact  must  be  recognized  that  instruction  in  drawing; 
the  appearance  of  objects  must  relate  primarily  to  instruction  in  seeingX 
and  that  pupils  fail  in  drawing  the  appearance  of  objects  more  from] 
inability  to  see  than  from  inability  to  draw.  In  general  all  persons] 
not  trained  to  habits  of  correct  seeing  are  predisposed  toward  drawing! 
or  representing  the  appearance  of  objects  according  to  the  idea  of] 
the  facts  of  the  form  which  the  sense  of  touch  has  fixed  in  the  mind. 

Nearly  all  the  principles  in  this  subject  can  be  learned  by  th( 
study  of  the  appearance  of  type  forms,  the  simplest  geometric  solid; 
They  are  : 

I.   Cylindric  forms.     2.    Rectangular  forms. 

Why  the  Appearance  of  Objects  differs  from  their  Facts. 
The  appearance  of  an  object  depends  on  two  conditions  :  . 

i.    Its  position  in  regard  to  the  observer ;  2.    Its  distance  from  the  observer. 


BOOK  in.]  REPRESENTATION.  6/ 

Position    affects   the    apparent   FORM    of   an    object;   distance    affects   the 

apparent  SIZE. 
The  apparent  form   of  any   object,   except  a  perfect  sphere,    varies   with 

every  position  in  which  it  is  placed  in  regard  to  the  observer. 

Hold  a  cube  so  that  you  can  see  but  one  face ;  what  is  the  shape  ? 
Hold  it  so  that  you  can  see  two  faces;  what  is  the  shape  of  the  cube 
as  you  see  it? 

The  apparent  size  of  an  object  decreases  as  its  distance  from  the  observer 
increases. 

The  effect  of  distance  on  the  apparent  size  of  an  object  is  a  matter  of 
common  observation.  Take  a  vertical  measurement  on  the  pencil 
(see  p.  72)  of  an  object  at  a  distance  of  three  feet,  and  again  at  a  dis- 
tance of  ten  feet. 

As  a  preliminary  to  the  exercises  in  Representation,  practice  can  be 
given  in  Measurement  on  the  pencil,  as  given  in  the  Manual  text  for 
Exercise  711.  p.  72,  and  as  illustrated  on  the  second  page  of  the  cover 
of  the  DrL.A^ing-Book. 

The  object  of  the  Exercises  in  Representation  in  Book  III.  is  to 
lead  pupils  to  see,  and  to  express  orally  and  by  drawing; 

/.    That  a  face  view  of  a  circle  is  always  a  circle. 

2.    That  an  edge  -view  of  a  circle  is  always  a  straight  line. 

j.    That  an  obliqtie  view  of  a  circle  is  always  an  ellipse. 

4.    That  the  more  oblique  the  view  is,  the  more  nearly  the  ellipse  approaches  a  straight 

line, 
j.    That  the  less  oblique  the  view  is,  the  more  nearly  the  ellipse  approaches  a  circle. 


68  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

EXERCISE    V.  — Group  of  Fruit. 

From  natural  Fruit. 
OBJECT.    To  arrange  a  group  of  fruit ;  to  study  its  appearance ;  to  draw  its  appearance. 

Arrangement  of  a  Group  by  Pupils.  —  Let  three  pupils  stand 
in  a  row;  let  three  others  stand  in  a  group.  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  row  and  the  group  ? 

Arrange  a  group  of  fruit,  of  two,  or  at  the  most  three,  very  simple 
forms,  so  that  the  effect  will  be  pleasing.  Remember  that  the  effect 
desired  in  a  group  is  very  different  from  the  regularity  allowed,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  demanded,  in  decoration. 


(i)  Choose  one  for  the  principal  object,  and,  generally,  place  it 
centrally  but  not  exactly  in  the  centre ;  (2),  do  not  place  the  other 
objects  in  a  straight  line  with  the  principal  object;  (3),  try  the 
effect  of  placing  the  objects  so  that  if  the  centres  of  their  bases  were 
connected  an  irregular  figure  would  be  made ;  (4),  place  them  as  if 
they  were  good  friends  and  belonged  together,  and  (5),  so  that  they 
will  appear  at  rest.  But  remember  (6),  that  the  objects  should  not 
have  the  same  positions,  that  is,  their  axes  should  not  be  all  upright 
or  all  horizontal ;  they  should  not  be  parallel  or  at  right  angles  to 
each  other ;  and  they  should  not  present  exactly  the  same  faces ; 
and  (7)  one  of  the  objects  should  be  partially  hidden  behind  another, 
even  if  there  are  no-  more  than  two  objects  in  the  group.  Look  now 
(8),  to  see  if  in  the  group  that  you  have  made,  the  objects  will 
appear  of  the  same  height  when  drawn.  If  so,  change  them,  for  the 
effect  will  not  be  pleasing. 


BOOK    III.] 


REPKESENTA  TION.  —  GROUP. 


69 


D.  B.,  page  G.  — Practice  page  for  Ex.  V. 

Practice.  —  Having  arranged  a  group,  obtain  the  proportion  of  the  width  to  the 
height  of  the  group, '  by  measurement  on  the  pencil,  as  illustrated  on  page 
40.  Indicate  by  light  verticals  and  horizontals  the  space  to  be  occupied 
by  the  group,  making  it  of  a  suitable  size  for  the  page  and  of  the  proper 
proportion.  Block  in  first  the  principal  object  in  the  group  and  then  the 
others.  Draw  the  table  line,  studying  to  place  it  well.  Draw  the  curves  over 
the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase  or  finish, 

D.  B.,  page  4.  —  Drawing  the  Outlines  of  a  Group. 

Observation  by  Pupils.  —  Study  the  groups  in  the  drawing- 
book.  If  you  connected  the  bases  of  the  objects  in  Fig.  i,  what 
kind  of  a  figure  would  you  have  ?  In  Fig.  2  ?  Describe  the  position 
of  the  axes  of  the  objects  with  relation  to  each  other  in  each  group. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  page  G.  Correct,  erase  wrong  lines 
and  finish. 


70  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

EXERCISE    VI.  —  Appearance    of   a    Cylinder   below   the    Level    of 

the    Eye. 

MODEL :   Cylinder  made  by  the  Pupils. 

OBJECT.  To  make  a  hollow  cylinder,  to  study  its  appearance  below  the  eye,  to  draw 
the  appearance. 

Making  the  Model.  —  Detach  page  H  and  cut  it  on  the  printed 
line.  Roll  into  a  cylinder,  lap  the  ends  half  an  inch  and  paste  them 
together. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  shape  of  the  top 
view  of  a  cylinder?  of  the  front  view?  Remember  that  these  terms, 
top  view,  front  view,  etc.,  refer  always  to  the  facts  of  an  object,  —  to  the 
object  as  it  is  when  measured,  and  not  to  its  appearance.  The  cylinder 
is  to  be  studied  in  this  Exercise  as  it  appears.  Hold  the  cylinder  just 
made  at  arm's  length,  vertical,  with  the  top  (i),  on  a  level  with  the  eye ; 
(2),  two  inches  below  the  level  of  the  eye ;  (3),  four  inches  below. 
Repeat. 

Hold  it  now  four  inches  below  the  eye,  and  look  at  the  top  ;  what 
is  the  shape  of  the  top  as  it  appears  to  you  ?  (The  shape  of  an 
ellipse?)  Raise  the  cylinder  two  inches ;  does  the  appearance  of  the 
top  change?  (The  top  appears  narrower  from  front  to  back^} 

Hold  the  cylinder  vertical,  at  arm's  length,  somewhat  below  the  eye ; 
how  much  of  the  lower  edge  can  you  see?  (One  half.)  What  is  the 
appearance  of  the  lower  edge  ?  (//  appears  to  curve  downward^)  Is 
the  curve  that  of  a  circle  or  that  of  an  ellipse  ?  If  you  could  see  the 
whole  of  the  appearance,  what  figure  would  it  be  like  ?  Compare  the 
front  half  of  the  upper  edge  and  that  part  of  the  lower  edge  which  is 
visible  ;  which  appears  to  curve  the  more  ?  (The  lower.)  What  is  the 
proportion  of  the  height  to  the  width  of  the  cylinder? 

D.  B,,  page  I.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VI. 

Practice.  —  Hold  the  cylinder  vertical  at  arm's  length,  two  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  eye;  and  study  its  appearance  and  proportion.  On  the  upper  part  of 
the  page  or  on  the  desk,  lay  a  pencil  or  a  strip  of  paper  to  represent  the  level  of 
your  eys.  Considering  this  as  the  level  of  the  eye,  draw  the  cylinder  as  it 
appears  to  you,  making  a  large  drawing  in  the  centre  of  the  page. 


BOOK  TIL]  REPRESENTATION.  — CYLINDER.  *J\ 

D.  B.,  page  J.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VI. 

Practice.  —  Three  ellipses  differing  in  proportion  are  printed.  Practice  move- 
ment, see  Fig.  6,  page  xiii,  on  the  upper  ellipse,  moving  in  the  order  i,  2,  3,  4. 
Repeat  the  movement  over  the  first  printed  diameters,  and  draw  an  ellipse 
with  one  sweep  of  the  pencil.  Following  the  same  order,  draw  ellipses  on 
all  the  printed  diameters.  No  erasing. 

D.  JB.,  page  5.  —  Drawing  the  Appearance  of  the  Cylinder. 

Observation  Exercises  for  the  Pupils.  —  Look  carefully  at 
the  printed  copy ;  hold  your  cylinder  vertical  at  arm's  length,  raising 
or  lowering  it  until  the  top  appears  to  you  like  the  ellipse  on  the 
printed  copy ;  observe  also  the  curve  at  the  bottom.  Note  where  the 
profile  lines  meet  the  ellipses ;  do  they  seem  to  cut  the  curve  or  to 
touch  it?  When  a  line  meets  a  curved  line  so  that  it  touches  it, 
but  if  continued  would  not  cut  it,  there  is  said  to  be  a  tangential 
union. 

Drawing.  —  On  the  printed  copy  draw  a  central  vertical,  complete  the  lower 
ellipse,  and  draw  the  diameters  of  the  ellipses. 

Connect  the  points  given  at  the  right,  for  the  central  line  of  the  drawing  to  be 
made.  Indicate  the  width  of  the  cylinder  by  indefinite  verticals,  and  draw 
lines  for  the  long  diameters  of  the  ellipses.  Determine  the  width  of  the 
ellipses  on  the  central  line,  and  draw  the  appearance  of  the  cylinder,  finish- 
ing it  in  broad  lines. 


72  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 


EXERCISE    VII.  —  Covered    Box.  -  Appearance    below    the    Level 

off    the    Eye. 

From  an  Object,  if  possible. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  appearance  of  horizontal  circles  below  the  eye  as  seen  in  a 
cylindric  object:  to  draw  the  appearance. 

Measurement  on  the  Pencil  by  Pupils.  —  (The  teacher  draws 
upon  the  board  vertical  oblongs  of  different  proportions.  If  the 
schoolroom  is  wide,  it  will  be  better  to  have  several  such  oblongs, 
some  at  the  left,  some  in  the  middle,  and  some  at  the  right  end  of 
the  board.  The  teacher  gives  the  following  directions,  and  sees  that 
each  is  intelligently  carried  out  before  proceeding  to  the  next,  ex- 
plaining that  the  measurement  to  be  taken  first  is  the  width  of  the 
oblong,  next  the  height  of  the  oblong.  See  illustration  on  the  second 
page  of  the  drawing-book  cover.) 

Position,  and  Practice  in  Holding  the  Pencil  for  Measurement.  —  Sit  well 
back  in  the  chair,  with  head  erect  and  shoulders  resting  firmly  against  the  back 
of  the  chair. 

Grasp  the  pencil  in  the  middle  with  the  fingers,  leaving  the  thumb,  and,  as  occasion 
demands,  the  forefinger,  free  to  move  along  the  pencil  (see  illustrations,  page  40). 

Hold  the  pencil  horizontal  and  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  eyes,  at  arm's  length,  with 
the  point  to  the  right.  Drop  the  hand  to  rest.  Hold  the  pencil  vertical  (not 
inclining  either  backward  or  forward,  either  to  the  right  or  the  left),  at  arm's 
length,  with  the  point  downward. 

Measuring  Horizontally.  —  Sit  back  in  the  chair,  close  one  eye,  and  hold  the  pencil 
horizontal,  at  arm's  length,  with  the  point  to  the  right,  and  so  that  the  left  end 
appears  to  be  just  at  the  left  side  of  the  form  or  figure  to  be  measured ;  move 
the  thumb  until  it  appears  to  be  just  at  the  right  side  of  the  form  or  figure 
(Fig.  i,  second  page  of  the  drawing-book  cover). 

Measuring  Vertically.  —  Hold  the  pencil  vertical,  at  arm's  length,  with  the  point 
downward,  at  such  a  height  that  the  upper  end  of  the  pencil  appears  to  be  exactly 
on  a  line  with  the  upper  side  of  the  form  or  figure  to  be  measured;  move  the 
thumb  up  or  down  the  pencil  until  the  thumb  appears  to  be  on  a  line  with  the 
lower  side  of  the  form  or  figure. 


BOOK    III.] 


RE  PR  ESEN  TA  TION.  —  CO  VERED    B  OX. 


73 


Comparing  two  Measurements.  —  Remember  always  to  take  the  same  position 
(back  in  the  chair,  pencil  .at  arm's  length)  for  any  two  measurements  that  you 
wish  to  compare  ;  and  that  the  measurements  give  proportion  only,  not  size.  Take 
the  shorter  measurement  on  the  pencil,  keep  it  by  holding  the  thumb  fixed ;  turn 
the  pencil  and  compare  this  measurement  with  the  longer,  by  seeing  how  many 
times  the  shorter  measurement  can  be  repeated  in  the  longer. 

Find  the  proportion  of  width  to  height  in  the  various  oblongs.  (The 
teacher  places  the  waste-paper  basket  where  all  can  see  it.)  Measure 
the  height  of  the  basket  and  its  width  at  the  top ;  which  is  greater  ? 

Study  by  Pupils  of  a  Cylindric  Object  —  a  Covered  Box. — 
Measure  the  height  and  width  of  the  appearance  on  your  pencil ;  how 
does  the  height  of  the  appearance  compare  with  the  width  ?  What 
is  the  appearance  of  the  top  ?  Measure  the  width  of  the  top  from 
front  to  back,  and  its  width  from  left  to  right  on  your  pencil;  how 
do  they  compare  ?  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  lower  edge  of  the 
cover  ?  Of  the  lower  edge  of  the  box  ? 

D.  B.,  page  K. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  VII. 

Practice.  —  Obtain  the  proportion  of  the  height  to  the  width  of  the  box  by 
measurement  on  the  pencil.  Draw  according  to  the  directions  given  for 
drawing  the  cylinder.  Make  a  large  drawing. 

D.  B.,  page  6.  —  Drawing  the  appearance  of  the  Box. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  kind  of  a  box  is 
represented  in  the  drawing-book  ?  What  is  the  actual  shape  of  its  top 
view  ?  (A  circled)  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  top  in  the  picture  ? 
(Like  an  ellipse?)  Why  was  it  not  made  the  actual  shape  ? 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  the  practice  page.  Make  a  large  drawing 
and  finish  it  in  broad,  soft  lines,  drawn  with  continuous  movement. 


74  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

OPTIONAL    EXERCISES    IN     DIMENSION    AND    IN     COLOR. 

The  two  blank  pages  facing  each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  book  are  to  be  used  for 
these  exercises,  They  may  be  exercises  in  Dimension  only,  or  in  Dimension  and 
Color  combined. 

Dimension.  —  These  exercises  afford  practice  in  drawing  oblongs 
of  different  dimensions.  The  six  oblongs  required  on  the  left  page 
are  to  be  i  inch  high,  and  in  length  3,  5,  8,  13,  n,  and  8  thirds  of  an 
inch,  respectively.  The  three  oblongs  required  on  the  right  page  are 
to  be  i  inch  high,  and  19,  21,  and  24  thirds  of  an  inch,  respectively. 

Dictation.  —  Left  page:  Follow  1]"  i,  in  "  Dictation,"  page  44.  Draw  verticals  from 
i  and  8  to  the  lower  side  of  the  imaginary  oblong,  On  the  upper  horizontal,  mark 
a  point  3  thirds  of  an  inch  (how  many  inches  ? )  to  the  right  of  the  vertical  from  i 
and  from  that  point  draw  a  vertical  to  the  next  horizontal  below,  thus  making  an 
oblong  i"  high  and  3  thirds  of  an  inch  long.  One  inch  below  this,  make  an 
oblong  i"  high  and  5  thirds  of  an  inch  long.  One  inch  below  this,  make  an 
oblong  i"  high  and  8  thirds  of  an  inch  long. 

In  making  the  oblongs  at  the  right  of  the  page,  begin  at  the  vertical  drawn  from  8. 
On  the  upper  horizontal,  mark  a  point  13  thirds  of  an  inch  (how  many  inches?) 
to  the  left  of  the  vertical  from  8,  and  from  that  point  draw  a  vertical  to  the 
horizontal  below,  making  an  oblong  i"  high  and  13  thirds  of  an  inch  long. 
One  inch  below,  make  an  oblong  i"  high  and  n  thirds  of  an  inch  long; 
one  inch  below  this,  an  oblong  i"  high  and  8  thirds  of  an  inch  long. 

Right  page:  Follow  1  i,  in  "Dictation,"  page  44.  Then  set  off  19  thirds  of  an  inch 
(how  many  inches  ? )  from  the  left  end  of  the  upper  horizontal,  and  draw  a  ver- 
tical to  the  next  horizontal  below,  thus  drawing  an  oblong  i"  high  and  19 
thirds  of  an  inch  long.  One  inch  below,  make  an  oblong  i"  high  and  21 
thirds  of  an  inch  long;  one  inch  below  this,  an  oblong  i"  high  and  24 
thirds  of  an  inch  long. 


n  T 


L  J  4.  J 

The    Laying    Out    and    Arrangement    of    Oblongs    on   the    Blank    Pages. 


BOOK  in.]  DIMENSION   AND    COLOR.  75 

Color.  —  If  these  are  used  as  color  as  well  as  dimension  exercises, 
the  relative  values  of  the  Primary  and  Secondary  pigment  colors,  yel- 
low, red,  blue,  orange,  green,  purple,  can  first  be  recalled  as  given  on 
page  45  ;  that  is,  yellow  3,  red  5,  blue  8,  purple  13,  green  n,  orange  8, 
and  also  their  arrangement  in  half-inches. 

It  is  now  desired  to  have  two  pages  in  which  the  oblongs  for  the 
Primary,  Secondary,  and  Tertiary  colors  shall  be  laid  out  in  thirds  of 
an  inch.  Tertiaries  are  made  by  mixing  Secondaries.  Oblongs  for 
the  two  pages  can  now  be  drawn  as  shown  on  the  opposite  page. 
The  left  page  is  laid,  out  for  Primaries  and  Secondaries.  This  can  be 
colored  as  directed  on  page  45. 

The  right  page  is  laid  out  for  Tertiaries.  The  upper  oblong  being 
opposite  the  purple  should  be  colored  with  a  mixture  of  the  two  other 
Secondaries,  orange  and  green,  making  the  Tertiary  known  as  citrine, 
or  orange-green.  The  second  oblong  being  opposite  the  green  should 
be  colored  with  a  mixture  of  the  two  other  Secondaries,  purple  and 
orange,  making  the  Tertiary  color  known  as  russet  or  orange-purple. 
The  third  oblong  being  opposite  the  orange,  should  be  colored  with  a 
mixture  of  the  two  remaining  Secondaries,  green  and  purple,  making 
the  Tertiary  known  as  olive  or  purple-green. 

Below  each  oblong  the  name  of  the  color  should  be  written.  Pupils 
having  obtained  through  these  exercises  the  color  sensations  of  the 
'Primaries,  Secondaries,  and  Tertiaries,  are  ready  to  find  and  to  recall 
objects  having  these  various  colors,  thus  fixing  the  color  sensations 
and  at  the  same  time  educating  the  color  sense.  If  previously  pupils 
could  have  practice  in  finding  and  matching  colors  according  to  the 
Color  Chart  of  Dr.  Jeffries,  they  would  be  much  better  prepared  for 
this  exercise. 

Various  exercises  should  also  be  given  to  fix  the  order  of  this  page  in 
the  minds  of  the  pupils,  so  that  in  using  a  Secondary  and  a  Tertiary  color 
together,  they  may  always  select  those  complementary  to  each  other,  — 

ORANGE,  Secondary,  harmonizes  with.     .  OLIVE  or  PURPLE-GREEN,  Tertiary. 
GREEN,  Secondary,  harmonizes  with     .     .  RUSSET  or  ORANGE-PURPLE,  Tertiary. 
PURPLE,  Secondary,  harmonizes  with  .     .  CITRINE  or  ORANGE-GREEN,  Tertiary. 


76 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  HI. 


DECORATION ; 

OR,  DRAWING  AS  APPLIED  IN  ORNAMENT, 

Decoration  is  the  science  and  art  of  producing  beauty  in  ornament. 
The  study  of  the  facts  of  form  of  objects  in  Construction,  and  of  their 
appearance  in  Representation,  is  now  properly  followed  by  the  study  of 
Decoration,  or  the  means  of  enhancing  the  beauty  of  objects. 

Ornament,  the  product  of  purely  decorative  art,  is  always  employed 
to  beautify  objects  created  for  some  purpose,  independent  of  their 
decoration.  It  produces  its  legitimate  effect  when,  without  concen- 
tration upon  itself,  it  makes  the  object  to  which  it  is  applied  more 
pleasing  than  'if  unadorned. 

Fitness  to  its  purpose  is  the  underlying  principle,  —  the  very  corner 
stone  of  all  good  ornament.  From  this  principle  of  fitness  for  its  pur- 
pose there  arises  the  fundamental  law  of  ornament,  —  Subordination. 
This  law  requires,  THAT  ALL  ORNAMENT  SHALL  BE  MODEST  AND  MOD- 
ERATE. Strong  contrasts  and  striking  effects  violate  it.  Illustrations 
of  this  requirement  in  matters  of  good  taste  in  general  are  familiar 
to  all.  A  loud  voice  in  conversation  is  not  excusable ;  a  forward,  self- 
asserting  manner  is  a  mark  of  ill-breeding;  gaudy  colors  in  dress  are 
shunned ;  showiness,  or  any  other  attempt  to  attract  attention,  is 
condemned.  This  requirement  holds  good  in  all  ornament,  whether 
architectural,  domestic,  or  personal.  He  is  not  well  dressed  whose 
dress  is  conspicuous ;  that  house  is  not  well  furnished  where  the 
furniture  is  obtrusive  ;  that  building  is  not  well  ornamented  whose 
decoration  is  not  subordinate  to  the  idea  of  the  building. 

The  Sources  of  Ornament.  —  The  sources  of  ornament  are  Ge- 
ometry and  Nature ;  and  it  is  difficult  at  times  to  distinguish  between 
these  two  sources ;  for  a  thoughtful  consideration  of  nature  will  show 
geometric  plans  and  forms  and  modes  of  arrangement  in  nature's 
handiwork.  Order,  symmetry,  and  proportion  are  all  exemplified  in 
nature  in  varying  degrees. 


BOOK  in.]  DECORATION.  77 

Materials  of  Ornament.  —  The  materials  of  ornament  are : 

1.  Geometric  plans,  enclosing  figures  and  units. 

2.  Conventionalized  units  derived  from  natural  forms  as  motives. 

3.  Historic  ornament. 

But,  in  order  to  use  these  materials  effectively,  it  is  necessary  to 
study 

(a. )     Geometric  construction  and  symmetric  arrangement. 
(  b.  )     The  proper  use  of  plant  forms  as  motives. 
(  c.  )     Well-selected  examples  of  historic  ornament. 

Symmetric  Arrangement.  —  The  principal  forms  of  arrangement 
(all  requiring  more  or  less  of  geometric  construction)  are  : 

1.  A  surface  design,  to  cover  a  surface. 

2.  A  border,  to  limit  a  surface. 

3.  A  single  arrangement,  complete  in  itself. 

Proper  Use  of  Plant  Forms.  —  "Flowers  must  be  something 
more  than  flowers  to  the  designer ;  he  must  seek  out  the  plan  of  de- 
velopment, and  then  adhere  closely  to  natural  laws."  Lead  pupils  as 
deeply  as  possible  into  the  study  of  nature,  in  order  that  they  may  see 
for  themselves  the  spirit  of  the  plant  which  they  are  studying,  as  well  as 
the  more  formal  matter  of  arrangement.  Then  let  them  conventionalize 
plant  forms  for  use  in  ornament,  by  keeping  the  characteristics  of 
growth,  curvature,  and  proportion  while  simplifying  outlines  and  omit- 
ting details. 

Historic  Ornament.  —  In  this  course  no  attempt  is  made  to  teach 
styles  of  ornament.  A  few  simple  and  characteristic  examples  have 
been  selected  from  different  styles,  in  order  to  lead  pupils  to  consider 
beauty  in  ornament.  The  study  of  the  characteristics  of  each  style  is 
left  for  more  advanced  work. 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  in 


EXERCISE    VIII.  —  Ornament.  —  Rosette. 

From  a  Copy. 
OBJECT.    To  study  a  rosette ;  to  draw  the  rosette. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  What  kind  of  repetition  dp  yoi 
see    on    this    page?     (In  Fig.  I,  repetition  around  a  centre;  in  Fig. 
horizontal  repetition?)     What  is  Fig.  4  ?     (A  border?)     What  does  Fig.  i 
look  like?     (Something  like  a  flower?)     It  is  called  a  rosette,  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  rose.)     What  is  the  general  shape  of  this   rosette  ? 
(That  of  a  circle?)     How  many  units  are  there  in  it?     (Eight?)     What* 
are  the  units  like  ?     (Like  triangles  with  the  corners  rounded?) 

D.   B.,  page  L.—  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VIII.  —  Dictation. 

Practice.  —  Free  movement,  free  drawing.     Draw  an  oblong,  using  the  angles  given. 
Bisect  the  left  side;  fiom  the  point  of  bisection,  draw  a  horizontal  across  the 
oblong.     Trisect  the  upper  side  ;  from  the  points  of  trisection,  draw  verticals  down 
the  oblong.    Complete  according  to  the  directions  on  p.  4,  for  D.  B.  I.  page  D,  and 
the  illustration  below.    This  very  simple  design  to  cover  a  surface  can  be  made  the  | 
basis  of  arrangement  for  a  more  elaborate  design  for  a  surface  covering.     As,  for  j 
instance,  the  rosette  of  page  7  could  be  drawn  in  each  circle. 

D.  B.,  page  7.  —  Drawing  the   Rosette. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  Can  you  think  of  any 
place  where  such  an  ornament  would  be  suitable  ?  Have  you  ever 
seen  any  rosettes  as  ornaments  ?  Study  Figs.  2  and  3  and  give  the 
steps  for  drawing  the  rosette. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  steps  brought  out  in  the  study  of  the  stages.     Erase  unneces- 
sary lines,  and  finish  the  rosette. 


D.  B.,  page  L,  completed. 


Design  for  a  Surface  Covering. 


BOOK  in.]  DECORATION.— MOORISH   ORNAMENT.  79 

EXERCISE    IX. -Moorish    Ornament. 

From  a  Copy. 
OBJECT.    To  study  a  historic  ornament;  to  draw  its  outline. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  The  Moors  were  a  people  of 
dark  complexion  who  lived  in  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  and  also 
in  Spain.  They  were  highly  educated  and  produced  a  great  deal  of 
beautiful  decoration.  But  as  the  Mohammedan  religion  forbade  the 
imitation  of  animal  or  plant  forms,  their  ornament  was  geometric  in 
general  character.  The  ornament  given  in  this  exercise  was  a  favorite 
form  in  Mohammedan  art  and  can  be  traced  in  various  modifications 
all  through  Arabic  and  Moorish  decoration.  An  example  is  given 
in  the  drawing-book  of  its  use  in  an  Arabic  border. 

D.  B.t  page  8.  —  Drawing  the  Ornament. 

Drawing.  —  On  the  copy,  sketch  a  vertical  as  an  axis  of  symmetry ;  also  horizontals 
to  connect  the  ends  of  opposite  curves. 

Draw  the  figure  in  the  space  at  the  right,  enlarging  it  to  fill  the  space.  First 
draw-  the  axis  of  symmetry  and  two  horizontals  to  correspond  to  those  drawn 
on  the  copy.  For  each  curve,  practice  first,  movement  on  the  copy,  then  over 
the  space  at  the  right,  then  draw  with  one  sweep.  Erase  construction  lines 
and  errors,  and  complete  the  figure  in  broad,  soft  lines. 

The  illustrations  below  are  historic  variations  of  the  copy.  A  purely 
original  figure  is  not  always  necessary  in  ornament ;  in  historic  orna- 
ment, there  will  be  found  many  modifications  of  a  favorite  figure. 


What  is  history  ?  (The  story  of  the  past.)  When  can  we  call  an  orna- 
ment historic  ?  (  When  the  ornament  is  recognized  as  having  belonged  to 
the  decorative  art  of  some  nation  or  people  m  the  past.) 


So 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


TBOOK  n 


EXERCISE    X.  —  Decorative    Design.  —  Units    Modified.  —  Arrai 
ment    about   a    Centre. 

OBJECT.  To  study  a  unit  and  ways  of  modifying  it,  to  modify  units  for  arrangement 
about  the  centre  of  an  oblong  quatrefoil ;  to  draw  the  arrangement. 

Study  of  D.  B.,  page  9,  by  Pupils.  —  Look  at  the  large  printed 
outlines,  Figs.  5  and  6 ;  what  is  the  general  shape  ?  (Oblong?)  What 
is  there  on  each  side  of  the  oblong?  (A  semicircle)  Do  you  remem- 
ber any  figure  made  of  four  semicircles  ?  (A  quatrefoil)  (The  teacher 
gives  the  name  oblong  quatrefoil.) 

In  Fig.  i,  you  see  a  design  in  an  oblong  quatrefoil;  how  many 
units  are  there  in  the  design  ?  (Four)  How  do  they  compare  with 
each  other?  (Two  are  larger  and  two  smaller;  they  look  alike  in  out~.~ 
line,  but  they  are  not  of  the  same  proportion) 

How  did  you  modify  a  unit  in  Book  II.  ?  (In  outline ;  by  drawing 
curved  lines  instead  of  straight)  How  else  can  a  unit  be  modified  H 
(In  its  proportion) 


D.  B.,  page   M.  —Practice  page  for  Ex.  X. 

Practice.  —  Fig.  i  is  a  unit  of  design.  Construction  lines  like  those  of  Fig.  I  are 
given  for  Fig.  2.  On  these  construction  lines,  a  symmetric  unit  differing  in  outline 
from  Fig.  i  is  required.  Modify  the  outline  by  substituting  curved  lines,  wholly 
or  in  part  for  the  straight  lines  of  Fig.  i.  In  Fig.  i,  the  upper  part  is-divided  into 
three  parts,  and  the  points  of  division  fall  on  the  construction  line.  In  the  modi- 
fication, the  points  of  division  may  or  may  not  be  on  the  horizontal  construction 
line.  The  curves  should  not  be  deep. 

Construction  lines  for  a  unit  differing  in  proportion  are  given  at  Fig.  3.  On  these 
lines  draw  a  unit  similar  to  the  one  drawn  at  Fig.  2. 

Practice  movement  for  the  curves  before  drawing.     No  erasing. 


Dh     JRATJON.— DECORATIVE    DESIGN. 


81 


.D.  B.,  page   N.  —  Second  practice  page  for  Ex.  X. 

Observation  Exercise  for  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  proportion  of 
height  to  width  in  Fig.  i,  page  M  ?  (j  to  2.)  If  you  had  the 
height  given,  how  could  you  get  the  width?  (Trisect  the  height  and 
make  the  width  equal  to  two-thirds  of  this  height?) 

Practice.  —  At  Fig.  i,  points  are  given  for  the  axis  of  symmetry  of  a  unit  like  Fig.  I, 
page  M.  Draw  the  axis,  trisect  it,  and  through  the  upper  point  of  trisection  draw 
a  horizontal  equal  to  two-thirds  the  vertical.  On  these  construction  lines  draw  a 
new  modification  of  Fig.  i,  page  M. 

At  Fig.  2,  points  are  given  for  the  construction  lines  of  a  unit  differing  in  proportion 
from  the  one  just  drawn.  Draw  these  lines  and  on  them  draw  a  unit  similar  in 
outline.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  9,  —  Arranging  Units  to  make  a  Design  and  Drawing  the 
Design. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  A  design  is  required  for 
an  oblong  quatrefoil,  Fig.  5 ;  how  much  space  should  there  be  between 
the  units  and  the  outline,  or  enclosing  figure?  (About  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  for  this  figure?)  Fig.  2  is  a  leaf ;  this  may  suggest  to  you  a 
modification  of  a  unit. 


Arrangement.  —  Decide  on  a  unit.  Cut  from  colored  paper  two  units  to  be  placed 
on  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  quatrefoil,  and  two  of  proper  proportions  for  the 
horizontal  diameter.  Draw  the  diameters  of  the  quatrefoil,  Fig.  5 ;  arrange  the 
units  to  meet  at  the  centre,  and  paste  them  at  the  centre.  Cut  a  central  figure 
like  Fig.  3  or  Fig.  4  and  paste  on  the  design. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  diameters  of  Fig.  6.  On  these  diameters  draw  the  design 
arranged  in  Fig.  5.  Draw  the  units  by  opposites.  Erase  diameters  and  lines 
within  the  central  figure.  Finish  the  design  with  broad,  soft  lines. 


S2  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  II 

EXERCISE    XI.  —  Toy    House.  —  Three    Views. 

MODEL  :    Toy  House  made  by  the  pupil. 

OBJECT.    To  make  a  model  of  a  house,  to  study  its  end,  side,  and  top  views,  and  t 
draw  them. 


D.   B.,   pzgQ  O.  —  The  Pattern  for  the  Model. 

Study  of  the  Pattern.  —  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  Fig.  2  ?  How  man 
parts  has  Fig.  i  ?  Which  parts  are  alike  ?  Can  you  tell  what  part 
of  the  house  they  are  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  side  of  the  house 
the  proportion  of  height  to  width?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  end 
(A  square  with  a  right-angled  triangle  on  the  upper  side.)  What  is  th 
proportion  of  height  to  width? 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

Illustrations  are  given  (for  the  teacher's  use)  of  triangles  named  from 
their  angles. 

Fig.  i,  a  right-angled  triangle,  having  but  one  right  angle;  Fig.  2,  ai 
acute-angled  triangle,  having  all  its  angles  acute ;  Fig.  3,  an  obtuse 
angled  triangle,  having  one  obtuse  angle. 

Making   the    Model.  —  Detach    the    page.     Cut    out    Fig.    i,    folc 
firmly  along    the    light  lines   and  paste  it.     Cut  out  Fig.  2  and  past 
it  on  as  a  roof. 

D.  B.,  page  10.  —  Drawing  three  Views. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Hold  the  model  at  arm' 
length,  on  a  level  with  the  eyes,  end  toward  you.  How  does  the 
end  view  differ  from  the  end  of  the  house  as  printed  in  the  pattern 
(The  roof  is  seen  overhanging  the  sides^)  Can  you  draw  the  end  vie\ 
on  the  board  ? 

Hold  the  model  with  the  side  toward  you.  How  wide  is  the  side 
of  the  house  ?  (The  width  of  the  side  is  equal  to  the  whole  height  oj 


BOOK    III.] 


RE  VIE  W.  —  CONS  TR  UC  TION. 


the  house?)  How  high  is  the  side  view  ?  (As  high  as  the  end  view.) 
What  part  of  the  house  does  the  roof  hide  in  the  side  view?  Can 
you  draw  the  side  view  on  the  board,  carrying  the  various  heights 
across  from  the  end  view  ? 

Look  down  on  the  model.  How  wide  is  the  top  view  from  left  to 
right  ?  (As  wide  as  the  roof  in  the  side  view.)  From  front  to  back  ? 
{As  wide  as  the  roof  in  the  end  view)  Can  you  draw  the  top  view  on 
the  board? 

Drawing.  —  A  printed  line  is  given  for  the  base  of  the  end  view,  and  an  angle  for  the 

lower  left  corner  of  the  side  view.     On  the 

printed  line,  as  a  base,  draw  a  square  lightly. 

Draw  a  light  vertical  diameter,  extending  it 

indefinitely   upward.      On    this   line    fix   the 

height  of  the  end  view,  and  draw  the  roof,  re- 
membering to  make  it  overhang. 
Draw  the  side  view,  carrying  indefinite  horizontals 

from  the  end  view.     Make  the  length  of  the 

side  of  the  house  equal  to  the  height  of  the 

house  and  add  a  sufficient  length  for  the  roof. 
Draw  the  top  view,  making  it  as  long  as  the  roof  in  the  side  view  and  as  wide  as  the 

roof  in  the  end  view. 


D.  B,,  page  10,  completed. 


Making.  —  Make  at  home  such  a  house,  but  change  the  dimensions, 
making  the  ends  3  inches  wide  and  the  sides  4  inches  wide. 

Draw  first  the  three  views  of  the  house,  the  end  view,  the  side  view, 
and  the  top  view ;  then  draw  the  pattern.  The  house  can  be  made  of 
pasteboard  or  of  wood.  A  door,  windows,  and  chimney  might  be  added, 
so  that  the  house  when  made  would  be  a  model  of  the  little  house  illus- 
trated on  the  page  of  the  drawing-book. 

The  pattern  of  the  chimney  furnishes  quite  a  problem ;  most  pupils, 
however,  will  work  it  out  for  themselves.  The  pattern  is  given  below. 


84  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  in. 

EXERCISE    XII.        Group. 

From  Objects. 

OBJECT.  To  arrange  a  pleasing  group  containing  a  cylindric  form;  to  study  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  group,  to  draw  the  appearance. 

Study    by    Pupils    of    the    Arrangement    of    a    Group.  —  In 

studying  the  arrangement  of  a  group,  consider, — 

1.  The  place  of  the  principal  object. 

2.  The  place  of  the  secondary  objects. 

3.  The  figure  made  by  the  group  on  the  table. 

4.  Unity  of  the  group  —  distance  between  objects. 

5.  Repose  of  the  objects. 

6.  Variety  in  the  positions  of  the  axes  and  in  the  faces  visible. 

7.  Partial  view  of  some  .of  the  objects. 

8.  Upper  line  of  the  group. 

(The  teacher  will  recall  these  topics  to  the  pupils  by  arranging  a 
group  where  all  can  see,  and  calling  not  only  for  opinions  as  to  the 
arrangement  whether  it  is  pleasing  or  not,  but  also  for  changes  that 
should  be  made  and  the  reasons  for  them.  The  topics  are  stated 
more  in  detail  on  page  68.) 

(The  teacher  can  also  vary  this  exercise  to  advantage  by  asking 
pupils  to  bring  in  pictures  of  groups  of  objects,  of  animals,  or  of 
people,  see  page  69,  to  be  studied  with  reference  to  these  points  by  the 
class.) 

Arrangement  of  a  Group  by  Pupils.  —  Arrange  a  group  of  two, 
or  at  the  most  three,  very  simple  forms,  comprising  a  cylindric  object 
and  fruit  or  vegetables.  As  you  arrange  the  group,  study  it  with 
reference  to  each  of  the  points  mentioned.  The  aim  should  be  to 
make  the  group  as  pleasing  as  possible  in  general  effect. 


BOOK 


KE  VIE  W.  —  REPRESENTA  TION. 


D.  B.,  page  R.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  XII. 

Practice.  —  Having  arranged  a  group,  obtain  the  proportion  of  the  width  to  the 
height  of  the  group,  by  measurement  on  the  pencil,  as  illustrated  on  the  second 
page  of  the  cover  of  Drawing  Book  III.  Indicate  by  light  verticals  and  hor- 
izontals the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  group,  making  it  of  a  suitable  size  for 
the  page  and  of  the  proper  proportion.  Block  in  first  the  principal  object  in 
the  group  and  then  the  others.  Draw  the  table  line,  studying  to  place  it  well. 
Draw  the  curves  over  the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase  or  finish. 


D,  B.,  page  11.  —  Drawing  the  outlines  of  a  Group. 

Observation  by  Pupils.  —  Describe  the  illustrations  in  the  draw- 
ing-book, with  reference  to  the  points  mentioned.  Improve  the  arrange- 
ment of  your  own  group  if  you  can. 

The  group  of  models  given  above  may  suggest  an  arrangement  of 
objects  similar  in  form. 


Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  practice, 
finish. 


Correct,  erase  wrong  lines,  and 


86  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  IIL 

EXERCISE    XIII.  —  Decoration.  —  Rosette.  -  Top   View  of  a  Flower. 

MODEL:  Five- pe tailed  Flower. 

OBJECT.  To  study  arrangement  in  the  top  view  of  a  flower  ;  to  draw  a  rosette  from 
the  top  view. 

Study  of.  Buttercups  by  the  Pupils  (each  having  one  if  pos- 
sible). What  is  the  color  of  your  flower?  Look  at  the  inside  and 
at  the  outside  of  the  flower;  what  do  you  notice?  (There  is  a  circle 
of  yellow  leaves  and  outside  of  them  •  there  is  a  circle  of  green  leaves) 
The  inner  circle  of  flower  leaves  is  called  a  corolla,  or  a  little  crown ; 
the  outer  circle  is  called  a  calyx,  or  cup. 

How  many  leaves  has  the  corolla  of  the  buttercup  ?  (Five)  The 
leaves  of  a  corolla  are  called  petals.  What  is  the  general  shape  of 
the  centre  ?  The  centre  is  filled  with  threadlike  parts,  stamens  and 
pistil,  too  small  to  be  studied  now.  How  many  petals  has  the  but- 
tercup ?  Do  you  know  any  other  five-petalled  flowers? 

Open  your  drawing-books  at  page  12.  What  is  Fig.  i?  Fig.  3? 
How  could  you  use  such  a  rosette  or  such  a  border  in  decoration  ? 

D.  B.,  p&ge  Q. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  XIII. 

Study  of  Fig.  I.  —  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  (A  circle)  How  is  it  divided  ? 
(It  is  divided  into  five  equal  parts  by  lines  starting  from  the  centre)  ( The 
teacher  gives  the  terms,  radius,  plural  radii,  and  circumference.) 

Practice.  —  Fig.  i.  Draw  in  this  circle  a  rosette  from  the  buttercup;  first  draw  the 
petals  lightly,  using  each  radius  as  an  axis  for  a  petal.  Add  a  central  circle  of 
proper  proportion  to  the  rosette. 


D.  B.,  page  Q,  completed. 

Fig.  2.     Divide  the  circumference  into  five  equal  parts  and  draw  five  radii.     Repeat  in 
this  circle  the  rosette  just  drawn. 


BOOK:  in.] 


RE  VIE  W.  —  DECORA  TION. 


D.  B.,  page  12.  —  Drawing  a  Rosette. 

Studying  the  Model. — (Each  pupil  should  have  a  five-petalled 
flower,  not  a  buttercup,  if.  possible.)  What  is  the  shape  of  the  petals 
of  your  flower,  as  seen  in  the  top  view?  What  is  the  name  of  your 
flower  ? 

Study  carefully  the  beauty  of  the  flower,  in  the  whole  arrangement 
and  proportion,  in  the  shape  of  the  petals,  in  the  grace  of  the  curves. 
These  are  the  elements  which  will  make  the  beauty  of  the  decorative 
figure. 

Can  you  think  of  an  object  which  you  can  make  and  decorate  with 
a  rosette,  used  either  simply,  or  repeated  for  a  border,  or  for  a  .surface 
covering  ? 


(The  teacher  should  encourage  the  pupils  to  use  -the  rosettes  drawn, 
in  decorating  some  object,  by  drawing,  by  cutting,  by  embroidery,  by 
carving,  or  by  painting.) 

Drawing." — A  circle  is  printed.  Within  the  circle  draw  a  rosette  from  your  flower, 
making  the  rosette  a  little  smaller  than  the  circle,  following  the  order  given  for 
the  practice  page.  To  limit  the  size  of  the  rosette,  make  a  point  on  each  radius 
about  i"  from  the  circumference.  Finish  the  rosette  in  broad,  gray  lines,  or  color 
the  rosette,  using  one  tertiary  and  one  primary  color. 


88  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  {BOOK  ill. 


LANGUAGE. 

Teachers  should  continue  to  give  pupils  practice  in  the  use  of  the 
terms  and  "names  on  pages  28  and  54,  as  well  as  in  the  use  of  those 
given  below,  always  requiring  complete  sentences. 

Names  of  Models,  Objects,  and  Details. 

ELLIPSOID,  OVOID,  EQUI.  TRI.  PRISM. 
ELLIPSE,  OVAL;  long  diameter,  short  diameter. 
TRIANGLE  ;  equilateral,  right-angled ;  vertex,  altitude,  base. 
CIRCLE;  radius,  radii,  circumference. 
LINES;  tangential  union. 
FLOWER;  corolla,  calyx,  petals. 

COLOR  ;  olive   or  purple-green ;  russet  or  orange-purple ;  citrine  or  orange* 
green. 

Terms  of  Construction. 

FACTS  ;  top  view,  front  view,  left  side  view,  right  side  view,  end  view. 

Terms  of  Representation. 

APPEARANCE;  the  level  of  the  eye,  below  the  level  of  the  eye. 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  A  GROUP;  Unity,  Variety,  Repose. 

Terms  of  Decoration. 

ORNAMENT;  geometric,  historic. 

REPETITION  ;  horizontal,  around  a  centre :  border,  rosette,  surface  covering, 

DETAILS  ;  enclosing  figure,  central  figure ;  oblong  quatrefoil. 

UNITS  ;  their  modification  in  outline,  and  in  proportion. 

BEAUTY;  arrangement,  proportion,  shape,  grace  of  curves. 


BOOK     IV. 


CONSTRUCTION. 
Facts  of  Form. 


r  SOLIDS :  Cube,  Cylinder,  Cone,  Square  Prism. 
j  OBJECTS :  Books,  Boxes,  Slate. 
I  MAKING:  Cones,  Lamp  Shade. 
I  CONSTRUCTIVE  DESIGN  :  Vase  Forms. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 
Appearance  of  Form. 


fCONE,  TUMBLER,  FLOWER  POT. 
I  BOOK  CLOSED,  BOOK  OPEN. 
]  NATURAL  BRANCH. 
I  COMPOSITION:  Group  of  Models. 


rSPIRAL  BORDER;  GOTHIC  LEAF. 

DECORATION.  \  DECORATIVE   DESIGN :    Natural   Growth,   Con- 

Orn.sj2iento.tion  of  Form,    j        ventionalization,  Rosette. 

I  NATURAL  GROWTH:  Braack. 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  A. 

OBJECT.    Practice  for  proper  position,  pencil-holding,  and  free  arm  movement,  hori- 
zontal, vertical,  oblique. 

Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Before  beginning  work  in  the  book, 
be  sure  that  pupils  know  how  to  hold  their  pencils  for  free  movement 
and  drawing.  Give  practice  in  movement  \vith 
the  pencil  from  left  to  right,  and  see  that  each 
pupil  holds  the  pencil  properly  (see  Fig.  i,  p. 
xiii),  —  the  same  for  movement  from  top  to  bot- 
tom (see  Fig.  2,  p.  xiii),  —  and  from  corner  to  corner  (see  Figs.  3 
and  4,  p.  xiii). 

Practice.  —  Draw  horizontals  from  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  ending  these  lines  directly  below  9. 
Draw  verticals  from  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  ending  these  lines  directly  opposite  f. 
Bisect  the  space  between  the  verticals  from  4  and  5,  at  top  and  bottom,  —  mark 
the  points  of  bisection,  g  and  h.  Find  the  horizontal  from  c,  and  mark  its  right 
end  i.  Place  a  point  for  a  lower  right-hand  corner  opposite  f,  and  mark  it/. 

Draw  c  g,fg,  and  h  /,  —  draw  c  7z,  oy,  g  i. 

Practice  arm  movement  for  each  line  before  drawing.     No  erasing. 


X 


D.  B.,  page  A,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  B,  completed. 


Drawing-Book,  page  B. 

OBJECT.  Practice  in  laying  out  a  page,  — proper  position,  pencil-holding,  free  arm 
movement,  horizontal,  vertical,  circular,  oblique,  —  giving  a  suggestion  of  surf  ace  covering. 

Study  of  the  Oblong.  —  Turn  to  D.  B.,  page  i,  and  study  the 
oblong  made  by  the  marginal  lines.  What  are  the  dimensions  of  this 
oblong  ?  How  wide  is  the  margin  of  the  page  at  the  top  and  bottom  ? 
at  the  left  and  right  ? 


BOOK   IV.] 


DRILL    EXERCISES. 


Practice.  —  Free  movement,  free  drawing.  Draw  an  oblong,  6"  high  by  9"  wide,  using 
the  angle  given  as  the  upper  left  hand  corner.  Bisect  the  left  side ;  frpm  the 
point  of  bisection  draw  a  horizontal  across  the  oblong.  Trisect  the  upper  side ; 
from  the  points  of  trisection  draw  verticals  down  the  oblong,  making  6  squares. 
In  each  square  draw  a  circle  about  2"  in  diameter.  Finish  as  in  the  illustration 
of  the  page  completed,  by  drawing  at  each  intersection  of  the  dividing  lines  a 
square  on  its  corner,  having  a  diagonal  of  i"  (the  point  of  intersection  being 
the  centre  of  the  square),  a  half  square  at  each  end  of  each  dividing  line,  and 
a  quarter  square  at  each  corner  of  the  oblong. 

Drawing-Book,  page  C. 
OBJECT.    Practice  in  drawing  reversed  curves  continuously  with  free  arm  movement. 

Study  of  Curves  by  Pupils.  —  Books  opened  at  page  C.  What 
kind  of  curves  do  you  see  on  this  page  ?  {Reversed  curves?)  Look  at 
the  reversed  curve,  Fig.  i,  and  see  whether  the  two  curves  of  which 
it  is  composed  are  circular,  or  elliptic,  or  ovoid.  Describe  these  two 
curves.  (They  are  ovoid,  —  but  although  similar  in  general  character,  they 
are  not  exactly  alike,  —  the  lower  curve  has  the  greater  altitude?)  How  is 
the  central  line  divided  ?  Compare  the  place  of  the  altitude  of  the  two 
curves.  Study  Figs.  2,  3,  and  4  in  the  same  way. 

Practice.  —  Fig.  i.  Practice  continuous  movement  over  the  printed  curve  until  its 
character  is  felt,  —  then  practice  a  corresponding  continuous  movement  for  a 
balancing  curve  on  the  same  central  line.  Draw  the  balancing  curve  with  one 
sweep  of  the  pencil.  Repeat  for  Figs.  2,  3,  and  4.  No  erasing. 


D.  6.,  page  C,  completed. 


92  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

EXERCISE  I.  — Cube,  Cylinder,  and  Cone.  — Two  Views. 

MODELS:   Cube,   Cylinder,   Cone,   Triangular  Tablets. 

OBJECT.  To  recall  the  form  of  a  cube  and  of  a  cylinder,  to  study  the  form  of  a  cone, 
to  study  and  to  draw  the  facts  of  the  three  solids. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Here  is  a  group  of  three 
models ;  name  the  two  which  you  know.  Compare  the  other  model 
with  the  cylinder;  tell  how  they  are  alike,  —  how  they  differ.  (The 
teacher  gives  the  name  cone.)  What  is  the  proportion  between  the 
altitude  and  base  of  the  cylinder  and  of  the  cone  ?  How  should  an 
object  be  held  in  order  to  obtain  a  front  view?  (//  should  be  held  so  that 
only  its  height  and  its  width  from  left  to  right  are  visible?)  How  should  it 
be  held  in  order  to  obtain  a  top  view  ?  (It  should  be  held  so  that  only 
its  width  from  left  to  right  and  from  front  to  back  are  visible?)  What 
would  you  draw  for  the  top  view  of  a  cube  ?  of  a  cylinder  ?  of  a  cone  ? 

Making  the  Model.  —  Turn  to  page  S,  cut  out  the  pattern,  roll 
and  paste  to  make  a  hollow  cone. 

On  the  cone  trace  the  outline  of  the  front  view,  beginning  at  the 
vertex,  moving  down  the  left  side,  straight  across  the  bottom  and  up 
the  right  side.  Trace  this  outline  in  the  air.  Find  the  tablet  having 
the  shape  of  this  outline.  How  do  the  two  sides  of  the  tablet  compare 
in  length?  (They  are  equal?)  (The  teacher  gives  the  name  isosceles 
triangle,  having  two  sides  equal?)  See  Fig.  2,  p.  62. 

What  would  you  draw  for  the  front  view  of  a  cube  ?  of  a  cylinder  ?  of 
a  cone  ?  Draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  cylinder  and  of  a  cone 
upon  the  board.  How  should  they  be  placed  ?  (The  top  view  should 
be  directly  above  the  front  view?)  The  easiest  way  to  place  two  views 
on  a  line  with  each  other,  either  vertically  or  horizontally,  is  to  draw 
first  a  light  centre  line  for  both  views.  This  line  generally  extends  a 
little  above  and  below  the  views  to  show  that  it  does  not  represent 
any  part  of  the  object.  The  lines  by  which  dimensions  are  carried 
from  one  view  to  another  are  called  working  lines. 


BOOK  iv.]       CONSTRUCTION.— CUBE,  CYLINDER,  AND  CONE. 


93 


D.  B.,  page  D,  completed. 
Draw  the  front  and  top  views, 


D.  B,,  page  D. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  I. 

Practice.  —  Cube.     The  front  view  of  a  cube  is  printed,  —  draw  the  top  view,  about  J" 
above  the  front  view.     Move  upward  from  the  left  vertical,  and  fix  a  point  for 
the  upper  left  corner   of   the   top  view.     Fix  a 
point  in  a^  similar  manner  for  the   right  corner. 
Draw  the  left  and  right  verticals,  the  upper  and 
lower  horizontals. 

Cylinder.  The  base  line  of  the  front  view  is  given. 
Bisect  it  and  draw  a  light,  indefinite  centre  line. 
Draw  the  front  and  top  views,  obtaining  the 
place  of  the  top  view  and  its  width  by  move- 
ment up  from  the  front  view. 

Cone.  The  base  line  of  the  front  view  is  given. 
Bisect  it  and  draw  a  light,  indefinite  centre  line. 
placing  the  top  view  of  the  cone  on  a  line  with  the  top  view  of  the  cylinder,  and 
obtaining  the  place  of  the  top  view  and  its  width  by  movement  up,  from  the  front 
view  of  the  cone  and  across,  from  the  top  view  of  the  cylinder. 

D.  B.t  page  1.  —  Drawing  the  facts  of  the  Cube,  Cylinder,  and  Cone. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils.  —  What  did  you  draw  on 
page  D  ?  Such  drawings  show  the  facts  of  the  cube,  —  they  are  the 
basis  of  working-drawings  from  which  objects  are  manufactured.  If 
the  dimensions  required  were  marked  upon  these  drawings,  they  would 
be  working-drawings.  In  the  illustration  in  the  drawing-book  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  solids  is  given,  that  is,  they  are  represented  as  they 
appear  to  the  eye  in  certain  positions.  Hold  the  cube  so  that  you 
have  the  top  view,  the  front  view.  Hold  it  so  that  it  appears  to  you 
as  represented  in  the  illustration  on  page  i.  Repeat  with  the  cylin- 
der and  the  cone.  Can  you  mention  objects  like  the  cone  ? 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  Practice.  Finish  the  different  views  in 
soft,  gray  lines. 

Making.  —  On  D.  B.,  page  S,  three  small  patterns  for  cones  of  different  proportions 
are  printed.  With  these  as  guides,  patterns  may  be  cut  for  larger  cones,  which 
can  be  rolled  and  pasted.  If  the  top  of  one  of  these  paper  cones  could  be  cut 
off  parallel  to  the  base,  the  part  remaining  would  serve  for  a  lamp  or  candle 
shade ;  and  if  that  part  could  be  unrolled,  it  would  show  the  pattern  of  a  lamp 
shade.  Such  a  pattern  is  printed  on  page  R  as  a  model ;  the  pattern  itself  cannot 
be  cut  out,  until  after  page  Q  has  been  used  as  a  practice  page  for  Exercise  XII. 


94 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


EXERCISE    II   -Three   Views  off  a   Book. 

From  a  Book. 

OBJECT.  To  study  a  book  as  to  the  facts  of  its  form,  to  draw  the  facts  of  its  form 
in  three  views. 

Study  of  a  Book  by  Pupils.  —  Take  the  thickest  book  that  you 
have.  How  many  dimensions  has  it  ?  in  how  many  ways  should  you 
measure  it  if  you  wished  to  give  the  size  ? 

Hold  it  upright  so  that  you  get  a  back  view,  —  a  side  view,  —  a  top 
view.  Remember  that  these  terms  refer  to  the  facts  of  objects,  and 
that  in  each  case  the  book  must  be  held  so  that  but  two  dimensions  are 
visible.  Views  giving  the  facts  of  form — geometric  views  —  show 
but  two  dimensions.  What  is  the  general  shape  of  the  back  view? 
the  side  view?  the  top  view?  What  is  the  proportion  of  the  width 
to  the  height  in  -the  back  view  ?  in  the  side  view  ?  Compare  the 
thickness  in  the  back,  front,  and  top  views. 


Four  Views  of  a  Book. 


What  is  there  to  be  seen  within  the  outline  of  the  back  view  ? 
title-piece.}     Describe  its  place  on  the  back. 


(The 


BOOK  iv.]       CONSTRUCTION.— THREE  VIEWS  OF  A  BOOK.  95 

In  the  side  view,  what  do  you  see  beside  the  flat  side  cover?  (That 
the  cover  curves  out  in  the  back,  and  thus  adds  width  to  the  side  view  ;  also 
half  the  title-piece  foreshortened.)  In  the  top  view,  what  do  you  see  t 
(  The  curving  out  of  the  cover  at  the  back,  the  corresponding  curving  in  of  the 
leaves  in  front,  and  the  thickness  of  the  cover?) 

There  is  no  definite  rule  for  the  distance  in  a  drawing  between  any 
"•tyo  geometric  views  of  an  object ;  it  is  generally  proportioned  somewhat 
to  the  size  of  the  views,  and  to  the  space  to  be  filled.  The  views  should 
not,  however,  be  so  near  together  as  not  to  be  readily  distinguished  from 
each  other,  nor  so  far  apart  as  to  appear  as  if  they  did  not  belong  to 
each  other. 

D.    B.,  page  E.—  Practice  page  for  Ex.  II. 

Practice.  —  Determine  the  proportion  of  width  to  height  in  the  side  view,  and  draw 
it,  using  the  angles  given  for  the  left  vertical.  At  the  left  of  the  side  view,  draw 
the  back  view,  determining  the  proportion  of  width  to  height,  and  obtaining  the 
height  by  movement  and  by  drawing  light  working  lines  from  the  side  view. 
Above  the  side  view,  draw  the  top  view,'  by  the  aid  of  working  lines,  obtaining 
the  two  dimensions  from  the  side  and  back  views. 

D.  B.,  page  2. — Drawing  three  views  of  a  Book. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils.  —  What  do  Figs,  i  and  2 
show?  (The  facts  as  seen  in  two  views.)  How  many  dimensions  do 
the  two  views  taken  together  show  ?  What  does  Fig.  3  show  ?  .  (The 
appearance  of  the  book  when  lying  turned  and  somewhat  below  the  eye.) 

Hold  your  book  so  that  it  will  appear  like  Fig.  3.  Your  book  may 
not  be  of  the  same  proportion  as  that  in  Fig.  3,  but  you  can  hold  it 
turned  and  somewhat  below  the  eye,  so  that  the  general  appearance 
will  be  the  same. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  three  views  of  the  book,  'showing  the  facts  of  its  form.  Follow 
the  order  given  for  practice  on  page  E.  Finish  the  three  views  in  soft,  gray 
lines. 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  IT. 


.    EXERCISE    III.  — Constructive  Design.  — Vase  Form. 

MODELS  :  Vases  of  simple  outline,  differing  in  proportion  and  profile. 

OBJECT.     To  study  the  proportion  and  profile  curves  of  vases,  —  to  design  a  vase  of 
pleasing  form  and  proportion. 

Study  of  the  Form  of  a  Vase  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  pur- 
pose of  a  vase  ?  What  is  the  proportion  of  the  height  to  the  width  of 
this  vase  ?  Is  the  vase  of  pleasing  proportion  ?  Would  it  look  better 
if  it  were  higher  ?  if  it  were  wider  ?  Compare  it  with  the  other  vases 
as  to  proportion.  Look  at  the  profile  curves  of  the  vase.  What  is 
the  general  character  ?  Suppose  a  vertical  passing  through  one  of  the 
profile  curves,  how  would  it  be  divided  by  the  curve?  Study  the 
profile  curves  of  the  other  vases.  Which  are  the  most  pleasing? 


Open  your  books  at  page  3.  How  are  the  verticals  of  Figs,  i,  2,  3,  4 
divided  by  the  curves?  (The  verticals  are  bisected  by  the  curves^)  The 
verticals  of  Figs.  5  and  6  ?  (The  curves  cross  the  verticals  one-third  from 
the  top.)  The  verticals  of  7  and  8  ? 

(The  front  views  of  two  vase  forms  are  given,  as  suggestions  to 
teachers  for  work  upon  the  board.) 


BOOK    IV.] 


CONSTRUCTIVE    DESIGN,— VASE    FORM. 


97 


D.  B.,  page  F.—  Practice  page  for  Ex.  III. 

Practice.  —  Connect  the  points  given  by  light  verticals.  Trisect  the  verticals. 
Through  the  ends  of  each  vertical  draw  a  light  horizontal,  one-third  the  length 
of  the  vertical,  extending  equally  to  the  left  and  right  of  the  vertical.  Con- 
nect the  ends  by  light  verticals.  You  have  now  construction  lines  for  drawings 
for  two  vase  forms.  Select  a  profile  curve  from  page  3,  which  is  pleasing  to  you 
for  each  vase  form.  Study  the  two  curves  selected.  Divide  the  outer  verticals  of 
each  figure  as  the  curves  require.  Practice  movement  for  the  left  curve  of  the 
vase  form  at  the  left,  and  draw  with  one  continuous  sweep,  —  the  same  for  the 
balancing  curve.  Draw  the  right  vase  form  in  a  similar  way. 

D.  B.,  page  3.  —  Drawing  the  Vase  Form. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  Study  carefully  the  two 
drawings  for  vase  forms  that  you  made  on  page  F.  Are  they  pleasing 
in  general  appearance  ?  Could  you  improve  upon  them  ? 

Cutting  vase  forms  is  a  pleasant  exercise  in  designing.  Having 
drawn  the  construction  lines  and  divided  the  outer  verticals,  fold  the 
paper  along  the  central  line,  keeping  the  construction  lines  visible,  and 
cut  a  curve  which  seems  pleasing.  Unfold  the  paper,  note  the  effect 
and  try  again.  This  method  is  that  of  some  eminent  designers  of  vase 
forms. 

Drawing.  —  In  the  middle  of  the  space,  draw  a  light  vertical.  Upon  this  as  a  central 
line  make  a  drawing  for  a  vase  form,  either  one  of  those  drawn  on  page  F  or 
another,  but.  keep  the  same  proportion.  Follow  the  order  given  for  the  prac- 
tice page.  Correct,  erase  wrong  lines,  and  finish  with  broad,  soft  gray  lines. 


98 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


REPRESENTATION. 

EXERCISE     IV. -Tumbler.       Flower-pot. -Facts     and     Appearance. 

MODELS  :  Cylinder,  Cone,  Flower-pot. 
OBJECT.    To  study  the  appearance  of  conical  objects,  to  draw  their  appearance. 

Study  of  the  Models  by  Pupils.  —  Hold  the  cone  so  that  the 
vertex  is  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  —  lower  it  four  inches ;  what  is  the 
appearance  of  the  edge  of  the  base  ?  (//  appears  to  curve  downward?) 
Does  it  appear  like  a  circular  curve  ?  (//  appears  like  an  elliptic  cttrve.) 

Hold  a  cylinder  in  the  same  position ;  compare  the  curves  of  the 
bases  of  the  models.  Can  you  see  any  more  of  the  curve  in  one 
model  than  in  the  other  ?  How  do  the  profile  lines  join  the  curve  in 
the  cylinder?  in  the  cone?  (Tangentially  in  both;  but  in  the  cylinder 
the  profile  lines  seem  to  meet  the  curve  at  the  ends  of  its  long  diameter,  — 
in  the  cone,  they  seem  to.  meet  the  cun>e  beyond  the  ends  of  its  long  diameter.) 


Study  of  the  Cone  Inverted.  —  If  the  top  of  the  cone  is  cut  off, 
parallel  to  the  base,  the  part  remaining  is  called  a  frustum.  Many 
common  objects  are  like  the  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone.  Can  you 
mention  any? 

Study  the  appearance  of  a  large  object  based  on  an  inverted  cone, 
like  a  waste-basket  or  a  flower-pot.  How  do  the  curves  at  the  top 
and  bottom  compare  ?  (The  curve  at  the  bottom  appears  deeper  in  propor- 
tion to  its  long  diameter  than  that  at  the  top.)  If  the  curve  at  the  bottom 
is  not  readily  seen,  place  the  basket  on  a  dictionary  and  the  flower-pot 


BOOK  iv.]    REPRESENTA  TION.  —  TUMBLER.  —  FLOWER-PO T. 


99 


upon  a  smaller  book.     The  straight  edges  of  the  books   will  contrast 
sharply  with  the  curves  at  the  bottom  of  the  objects. 

D.  B.,  page  G. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  IV. 

Practice.  —  On  the  left  half  of  the  page,  draw  the  appearance  of  an  upright  cone 
somewhat  below  the  level  of  the  eye.  Determine  the  proportion  of  width  to 
height  by  measurement  on  the  pencil  (see  second  page  of  Drawing-Book 
cover).  Draw  a  central  vertical.  Determine  the  place  for  the  diameter  of  the 
ellipse  at  the  base  and  draw  it.  Draw  a  complete  ellipse  for  the  base.  Draw 
the  profile  lines  of  the  cone  tangent  to  (see  page  71),  not  cutting,  the  ellipse. 
On  the  right  half,  draw  the  appearance  of  an  object  based  on  an  inverted  cone. 
Begin  by  drawing  a  central  vertical.  No  erasing. 

D.  B.,  page  4.  —  Drawing  the  appearance  of  a  Flower-pot. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils.  —  Place   a   flower-pot  below 
the  level  of  the  eye.     Study  the    appearance  of   its 
thickness  at  the  top..    Where  does  the  thickness  ap- 
pear the  greatest  ?     (At  the  left  and  right.)     Where 
the  least  ?     (At  the  back.) 

Figs,  i  and  2  show  the  facts  and  the  appearance  of 
a  tumbler.     What  does  Fig.  3  show  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  in  the  space  at  the  right  the  appearance  of  a  flower-pot,  making  a 
large  drawing  of  a  suitable  size  for  the  space.  Follow  the  order  given  for  prac- 
tice page  G.  Correct  errors,  erase,  and  finish  with  broad,  soft  gray  lines. 


IOO 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


EXERCISE    V.  —  Rectangular    Object    in    front    of.    and    below    the 
Level  of,  the  Eye — Its    Appearance. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  appearance  of  a  rectangular  object  in  front  of,  and  below  the 
level  of,  the  eye ;  to  draw  the  appearance. 

Study  of  the  Object  by  Pupils.  —  Select  the  thickest  book  you 
have.  Lay  it  well  back  on  the  desk,  the  back  of  the  book  toward  you. 
Place  a  pencil  vertically  at  each  end  of  the  back.  Close  one  eye  and 
incline  the  pencils  toward  each  other  until  they  appear  to  cover  the 
left  and  right  edges  of  the  book.  What  is  the  apparent  direction 
of  the  left  and  right  edges?  (Toward  each  other.)  Which  appears 
longer,  the  nearer  or  the  farther  edge?  (The  nearer  edge.) 


Slip  a  piece  of  string  three  or  four  feet  long  under  the  upper  cover 
of  the  book,  as  far  as  the  binding.  Sit  opposite  the  middle  of  the 
book,  and  holding  the  strings  with  one  hand,  move  them  until  they 
hide  the  left  and  right  edges  of  the  book-cover.  In  doing  this,  incline 
the  strings  toward  each  other  as  the  case  may  require,  but  do  not 
incline  them  backward  or  forward.  See  Fig.  i,  p.  101.  Do  they  meet 
above,  below,  or  on  the  level  of  your  eye  ?  If  you  hold  the  strings 
so  that  the  left  and  right  edges  of  the  book  are  covered,  the  strings 
will  meet  exactly  on  a  level  with  your  eye.* 

Hold  the  strings  with  the  left  hand ;  and  compare  by  measurement 
on  the  pencil,  the  length  of  the  book,  and  the  distance  between  the 
book  and  the  point  where  the  strings  meet. 

*  This  exercise  serves  to  bring  out  not  only  that  the  left  and  right  edges  appear  to  converge,  but  also 
that  they  appear  to  converge  toward  a  point  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  —  two  extremely  important  points. 
The  exercise  was  presented  by  Mr.  Perry  at  his  Saratoga  summer  classes  in  1885,  1886,  and  1887  to  the 
great  satisfaction  of  the  teachers  who  were  members  of  the  class  and  who  have  since  used  it  in  their 
own  teaching.  It  has  been  carried  out  very  pleasantly  by  the  use  of  a  rubber  band  in  place  of  the  string. 


BOOK  iv.]     REPRESENTATION.  — RECTANGULAR    OBJECT. 


TOI 


Changing  the  strings  to  the  right  hand,  place  a  ruler  against  them  so 
that  the  lower  edge  of  the  ruler  just  hides  the  farther  edge  of  the  cover. 
Look  now  at  the  shape  of  the  cover  as  inclosed  between  the  strings  and 
the  ruler;  describe  it.  (A  four-sided  figure  having  the  front  and  back 
parallel,  but  the  left  and  right  sides  converging.)  Compare  the  two  parallel 
sides  as  to  length.  Compare  the  distance  between  them  with  the  length 
of  the  nearer  side. 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  2. 

Put  away  the  string  and  ruler;  measure  on  your  pencil  held  vertically 
the  distance  between  the  nearer  and  the  farther  edge  and  compare  it 
with  the  length  of  the  nearer  edge.  Look  now  at  the  ends  of  the 
book  and  at  the  bands  of  the  title-piece ;  do  they  appear  to  curve ;  if  so, 
which  way  do  they  seem  to  curve  ? 

D.  B.,  page  H .  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  V. 

Practice.  —  Make  a  large  drawing  of  the  book  as  you  see  it,  drawing  first  the  back ; 
then  draw  a  horizontal  for  the  level  of  the  eye,  placing  it  as  far  above  the  drawing  in 
proportion  to  its  size  as  the  eye  is  above  the  object  itself ;  on  this  line,  place  a  point 
directly  above  the  middle  of  the  drawing  of  the  back ;  draw  the  top  of  the  book, 
making  the  left  and  right  sides  converge  toward  the  point  just  made. 

D.  B.,  page  5.  —  Drawing  the  appearance  of  a  Book. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  appearance  of  a  book,  slate,  or  rectangular  box,  following  the 
order  given  for  practice  on  page  H.  Finish  in  soft,  gray  lines. 


1 32  .TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 

EXERCISE    VI.  — Book    Opened.  —  Appearance    in  front    off,    and 
below    the    Level    off,    the    Eye. 

From,  an  open  Book. 

OBJECT.  To  study  the  appearance  of  an  open  book  in  front  of,  and  below  the  level  of, 
the  eye;  to  draw  the  appearance. 

Study  of  the  Object  by  Pupils. —  Open  the  book  which  you 
used  in  the  last  exercise,  as  in  Fig.  i,  Fig.  2,  or  Fig.  3,  D.  B.,  page  6, 
and  place  it  back  on  the  desk,  in  front  of  you.  What  is  the  general 
shape  of  the  book  as  it  lies  open?  (An  oblong,  lying  from  left  to  right.) 
What  is  its  thickness  now,  compared  with  its  thickness  when  closed  ? 

Slip  a  string  under  the  front  ends  of  the  book  and  study  the  direction 
of  the  receding  edges  (edges  running  from  front  to  back),  as  in  the 
last  exercise.  How  many  receding  horizontal  edges  are  there  ?  Hold 
the  ends  of  the  string  so  as  to  hide  the  left  and  right  edges  of  the 
'cover.  Having  adjusted  these,  hold  them  with  the  left  hand;  with 
the  right  hold  a  ruler  vertical,  with  the  edge  toward  you,  so  that  it 
will  hide  the  middle  of  the  book  from  you.  Where  does  the  ruler 
meet  the  strings  ?  If  it  does  not  reach  them,  where  would  it  meet,  if 
it  were  prolonged  ?  (On  the  level  of  the  eye.) 

Imagine  the  left  and  right  edges  of  the  leaves  continued  ;  what  is 
their  apparent  direction  ?  (Toward  the  point  where  the  ruler  and  strings 
meet.)  What  is  the  actual  relative  direction  of  the  edges  ?  (Parallel^)- 
What  general  conclusion  do  you  make  from  the  study  of  the  appear- 
ance of  these  edges?  (That  all  parallel  horizontal  edges,  receding  directly 
from  the  eye,  appear  to  converge  to  a  point  on  the  level  of  the  eye.)  Still 
holding  the  strings,  place  the  ruler  across,  as  in  Ex.  V.,  so  as  just  to 
hide  the  farther  edges ;  what  is  the  general  shape  of  the  appearance  ? 

D.  B.,  page  I .  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VI. 

Study  by  Pupils  to  place  the  Drawing  well.  —  What  is  the 
proportion  of  the  whole  height  of  the  appearance  of  the  book  to  its 
width  ?  How  wide  a  drawing  can  you  make  on  the  page,  to  look 
well  ?  How  wide  a  margin  should  you  have  at  the  left  and  right  ? 


BOOK  iv.j  REPRESENTATION,  — BOOK   OPENED.  103 

(Not  less  than  an  inch  on  a  page  of  this  size.)  At  the  bottom  ?  (Not 
less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch.)  If  you  make  your  drawing  seven 
inches  wide,  about  how  high  should  the  whole  drawing  be?  Deter- 
mine, then,  how  much  space  you  will  leave  above  and  how  much 
below  the  drawing,  making  the  space  below  less  than  that  above. 

Practice.  —  Draw  a  light  horizontal  for  the  lower  line  of  the  drawing,  of  a  suitable 
length  for  the  page,  and  as  far  above  the  lower  edge  as  determined  in  the  study 
to  place  the  drawing.  Draw  a  horizontal  for  the  level  of  the  eye ;  if  necessary, 
slip  a  piece  of  paper  under  the  upper  edge  of  the  page  upon  which  to  draw  this 
line  called  (L.  of  E.).  Place  a  point  on  L.  of  E.  directly  above  the  centre  of 
the  lower  horizontal.  Draw  all  horizontal  receding  edges  toward  this  point. 
Complete. 

D.  B.,  page  6.  —  Drawing  the  appearance  of  an  open  Book. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils. — Look  out  of  the  window. 
Which  do  you  see  more  distinctly,  the  objects  near  to  you  or  the  objects 
far  away  ?  Can  you  think  how  a  distant  hill  and  trees  look  ?  What  can 
you  say  about  the  relative  clearness  of  outline  of  near  and  distant 
objects  ?  (The  outlines  of  near  objects  are  distinct,  but  those  of  distant 
objects  are  somewhat  vague  and  indistinct^}  In  drawing,  the  effect  of 
distance  is  increased  by  making  those  parts  farther  from  the  eye,  less 
distinct  than  the  parts  nearer  the  eye. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  according  to  the  directions  for  the  practice  page.  Finish  in  broad, 
soft  gray  lines,  varying  in  thickness,  making  the  lines  on  the  farther  edges  less 
distinct  than  those  on  the  nearer  edges,  and  making  the  receding  edges  a  little 
fainter  as  they  go  farther  from  the  eye. 


104 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


OPTIONAL    EXERCISES    IN     DIMENSION    AND    IN     COLOR. 

The  two  blank  pages  facing  each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  book  are  to  be  used  for 
these  exercises.  They  may  be  exercises  in  Dimension  only,  or  in  Dimension  and 
Color  combined. 

Dimension. — These  exercises  afford  practice  in  drawing  vertical 
oblongs  of  different  dimensions. 

The  two  oblongs  required  on  the  left  page  are  to  be  6  inches  high, 
and  3  and  5  half -inches  wide  respectively. 

The  oblong  required  on  the  right  page  is  to  be  6  inches  high,  and 
8  half-inches  wide. 


Left  page,  completed. 


Right  page,   completed. 


Dictation.  —  Left  page :  Lay  out  an  imaginary  oblong,  6"  by  9";  see  "Dictation, 
page  44.  Divide  the  imaginary  upper  horizontal  into  inches  by  trisection.  Num- 
ber the  inches  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  Bisect  the  second  inch.  Using  the  point  of  bisec- 
tion just  made,  as  the  upper  left  corner,  draw  a  vertical  oblong,  3  half-inches 
wide  and  6  inches  high.  Using  the  point  5,  as  the  upper  left  corner,  draw 
another  vertical  oblong  5  half-inches  wide  and  6  inches  high. 

Right  page :  Lay  out  the  oblong  as  for  the  left  page,  dividing  the  imaginary  upper 
horizontal  into  inches  and  numbering  them  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  Bisect  the  third  inch. 
Using  the  point  of  bisection  as  the  upper  left  corner,  draw  an  oblong  8  half-inches 
wide  and  6  inches  high. 


BOOK  iv.J  DIMENSION  AND    COLOR. 


105 


Color.  —  If  these  are  to  be  Color  as  well  as  Dimension  Exercisess 
the  relative  values  of  the  Primary  pigment  colors  should  be  recalled ; 
yellow  3,  red  5,  blue  8.  The  purpose  is,  not  so  much  to  keep  before 
the  pupils  the  numerical  ratio  of  the  color  values  as  to  fix  in  their  minds 
that,  in  order  to  produce  a  harmonious  and  satisfactory  result  in  the 
use  of  these  three  colors  in  composition  (unless  working  to  a  partic- 
ular scale  of  color),  there  should  be  less  yellow  than  red,  and  less 
red  than  blue.  To  continue  this  impression,  the  relative  values  of 
the  colors  are  adhered  to  in  this  exercise. 

Questions  may  be  given  to  recall  the  Secondaries  and  the  Tertiaries  ; 
and  also  the  harmony  of  Secondaries  and  Tertiaries,  see  page  75. 

In  the  Color  Exercises  in  previous  books,  the  Primary,  Secondary, 
and  Tertiary  colors  have  been  learned  in  laying  on  f/af  washes.  In 
the  exercises  for  this  book,  graded  washes  are  introduced.  In  mak- 
ing a  graded  wash,  work  should  be  begun  at  the  top  with  a  brush 
full  of  wet  color;  more  water  should  then  be  taken  in  the  brush, 
to  float  the  color  down  in  gradually  decreasing  strength,  and  this 
should  be  repeated,  thus  making  a  wash  graded  from  full  down  to  pale 
color.  The  surface  on  which  the  work  is  done  should  slant  a  little. 
Oblongs  for  the  two  pages  can  be  drawn  as  dictated  above.  The  first 
oblong  can  be  colored  with  a  graded  wash  of  yellow ;  the  second, 
with  a  graded  wash  of  red ;  the  third,  with  a  graded  wash  of  blue. 


io6 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv. 


DECORATION. 

DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  J.  —  Equable  Spiral. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  Describe  the  direction  of  the 
line  in  this  figure.  The  figure  is  called  a 
spiral.  As  the  line  goes  round  and  round, 
how  do  the  distances  between  the  parts  com- 
pare at  different  points  ?  (They  are  equal?) 
Therefore,  the  spiral  is  called  an  equable 
spiral.  One  revolution  of  the  line  is  called 
a  spire.  Can  you  mention  any  object  that 
resembles  this  figure  ? 

Practice.  —  Draw  a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  through  the 
points  given  on  the  right  half  of  the  page.  Begin- 
ning at  the  centre  of  the  copy,  move  over  the 
printed  spiral.  Repeat  through  the  points  given, 
then  draw  with  continuous  motion. 

Drawing-Book,  page  K.  — Variable  Spiral. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  Compare  this  spiral  with  that 
on  page  J.     How  do    they    differ?     What    can    you    say    of   the    dis- 
tance   between    the    spires    at    different  points  ?      (//  is  constantly   in- 
creasing?)     Therefore,  this  figure  is  called  a  variable  spiral. 
Practice.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  drawing  the  equable  spiral. 

EXERCISE    VII.  — Border    of    Reversed    and    Spiral     Curves. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  a  border  of  reversed  and  spiral  curves. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  With  pencil  in  hand,  move  over 
the  long  curve  which  passes  through  the  border ;  what  kind  of  a  curve 
is  it  ?  (A  reversed  curved)  A  reversed  curve  repeated  forms  what  is 
called  a  wave  line.  W7hat  other  curves  are  there  in  the  border? 
(Spiral  curves?)  Begin  movement  again  over  the  reversed  curve,  but 


BOOK    IV.] 


DECORA  TION.  —  BORDER. 


107 


pass  around  over  the  first  spiral ;  repeat.  How  does  the  curve  of  the 
spiral  unite  with  the  reversed  curve  ?  (Tangentiatty^  Describe  the 
movement.  (//  is  continuous,  —  unbroken?)  Repeat  over  the  reversed 
curve  and  the  other  spirals ;  notice  that  the  second  movement  is 
simply  the  reverse  of  the  first.  Alternation  of  effect  is  produced  by 
this  reversal  of  the  repeat.  How  many  repeats  are  there  in  the 
border?  • 

This  border  combines  the  graceful  curvature  and  the  tangential 
union  of  lines  found  in  Greek  ornament ;  and  it  is  the  basis  of 
the  scroll,  which  was  developed  and  elaborated  from  the  simple  wave 
line  into  one  of  the  most  perfect  decorative  forms  ever  employed. 

D.  B.,  page  L.  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VII. 

Study  of  Construction  Lines.  —  In  the  first  repeat  of  the  border 
on  page  7  there  are  light  lines ;  what  is  their  purpose  ?  (To  assist  in 
laying  out  the  figured)  What  are  they  called  ?  (Construction  lines.)  On 
page  L  construction  lines  are  given  for  the  border,  the  outer  marginal 
lines  being  omitted.  Compare  the  construction  lines  on  this  page  with 
those  in  the  first  repeat  on  page  7,  and  determine  through  what  points 
the  reversed  curve  should  pass,  —  also  the  spiral  curves. 

Practice. —  Practice  movement  over  the  reversed  curve  on  page  7,  then  over  the 
construction  lines  of  page  L,  —  then  draw  the  curve  continuously.  Repeat  for  the 
spirals,  beginning  movement  on  the  reversed  curve  and  carrying  it  around  over 
the  spirals.  Repeat  this  practice  on  the  construction  lines  below. 

D.  B.,  page  7.  —  Drawing  the  Border. 

Drawing.  —  Light  enclosing  lines  for  a  border  are  printed.  Draw  lightly  the  inner 
marginal  lines.  Trisect  the  inner  lines  and  bisect  the  left  vertical.  Draw  the 
construction  lines  through  the  whole  length  of  the  border.  Practice  movement 
and  draw  as  above.  Erase  construction  lines  and  finish  in  soft,  gray  lines. 


Egyptian  "Wave  Scroll. 


IO8  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 

EXERCISE    VIII.— Ivy    Leaf.  —  Twelfth    Century. 

Three  and  five  lobed  ivy  leaves  brought  in  by  pupils. 
OBJECT.    To  study  a  Gothic  ivy  leaf,  to  compare  it  with  natural  leaves,  to  draw  it. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  Look  first  at  the  ivy  leaves  which 
you  have ;  how  many  parts  or  lobes  have  your  leaves  ?  (Some  have 
three,  some  Jive.)  How  many  lobes  has  the  copy 'given  in  the  drawing 
book  ?  Look  at  its  centre  lobe  ;  has  any  one  an  ivy  leaf  having  such 
curves  in  the  centre  lobe  as  those  of  the  copy  ?  Study  the  other 
curves  of  the  copy  in  the  same  way. 

The  leaf  given  in  the  drawing-book  is  from  a  leaf  found  in  early 
Gothic  ornament, —  ornament  of  the  twelfth  century.  Certain  charac- 
teristics and  leading  curves  of  the  ivy  leaf  were  studied  and  reproduced, 
all  minor  details  being  omitted  ;  and  a  conventionalized  ivy  leaf  and 
tendril  in  the  simple,  strong,  early  Gothic  style  was  produced. 

Study  the  blocking-in  given  in  Fig.  2.  What  is  the  general  shape  of 
the  blocking-in  ?  What  is  the  proportion  ? 

D.  B.f  page  M .  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VIII. 

Practice.  —  Block  in  an  oblong  of  the  proportion  shown  in  Fig.  2,  p.  8,  and  of  suitable 
size  for  the  page,  first  indicating  its  height  and  width  by  light  lines,  then  drawing 
the  oblong.  Draw  the  oblique  lines  as  further  aids  in  obtaining  the  shape  of  the 
leaf.  Block  in  the  midrib  and  lobes,  and  the  tendril  and  draw  the  curves  over 
the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase. 

D.  B.,  page  8.  —  Drawing  the  Leaf. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  This  leaf  (Fig.  i)  looks 
strong  and  vigorous  ;  it  is  apparently  holding  itself  erect ;  how  is  this 
effect  produced  ?  (By  the  strength  in  the  drawing  of  the  stem  and 
midrib^)  This  strength  is  seen  (i)  in  the  directness  of  the  line  of 
growth,  the  general  direction  of  this  line  being  easily  expressed  in 
but  two  straight  lines;  (2)  in  the  breadth  of  the  stem. 

The  figure  looks  well-balanced  also.  But  if  a  central  vertical  were 
drawn,  it  would  not  divide  the  drawing  into  two  corresponding  parts ; 
the  effect  of  balance  in  the  figure  is  not  produced  by  repetition  on 
an  axis.  Can  you  tell  how  this  effect  is  produced  ? 


BOOK  iv.]     DECORA  TION.  —  IVY  LEAF.  —  TWELFTH  CENTUR  Y.          I OQ 

9 

Study  the  copy  to  discover  why  it  looks  well-balanced.  Apparently 
the  leaf-stalk  and  tendril  first  shot  outward  to  the  right,  but  the  life  and 
vigor  within  carried  the  leaf  upward ;  the  growth  upward  apparently 
counteracted  and  to  a  certain  extent  conquered  the  outward  tendency ; 
the  two  balance  each  other.  This  is  all  expressed  by  the  direction  of 
the  leaf-stalk  and  midrib,  holding  up  the  leaf.  The  end  of  the  leaf-stalk 
is  left  open,  unfinished,  to  indicate  that  the  whole  form  is  not  given ;  the 
curvature  also  indicates  that  the  leaf  is  still  receiving  strength  from  the 
main  branch,  which  adds  to  the  impression  of  balance,  and  stability. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  the  practice  page.  Study  to  produce  the 
effect  of  strength  and  balance  in  the  drawing.  Erase  the  blocking-in  and  finish 
in  broad  gray  lines. 


110  TEACHERS   MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 

EXERCISE    IX.  —  Decorative  Design  from  the  Buncbberry. 

OBJECT.    To  draw  a  design  for  a  rosette,  using  a  plant-form  as  a  motive. 

Study  for  the  Unit  of  the  Rosette. — The  design  required  is  a 
rosette,  having  a  square  on  its  diagonals  as  the  enclosing  figure,  the 
motive  for  the  design  to  be  taken  from  the  bunchberry.  Draw  on  the 
board  two  lines,  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical,  2  feet  long,  crossing  each 
other  in  the  centre.  Connect  the  ends  of  these  lines  by  straight  lines, 
drawing  them  by  opposites.  The  figure  is  a  square  on  its  corner,  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  being  its  diagonals.  As,  in  drawing  a  square 
on  its  corner,  the  diagonals  are  drawn  first,  it  is  also  called  a  square 
on  Us  diagonals. 

(In  the  study  for  the  unit,  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to  lead  the 
pupils  to  the  following  conclusions,  by  asking  for  opinions  and  reasons.) 

This  rosette  should  have  but  four  units.  The  number  of  units  should  always  be 
either  equal  or  be  a  multiple  of  the  number  of  sides  of  the  enclosing  figure.  For 
the  sake  of  simplicity  (a  very  great  beauty  in  decorative  design,  as  it  generally 
adds  to  the  effect  of  repose)  the  smallest  number  of  units  is  generally  chosen. 
The  units  of  this  rosette  should  be  placed  vertically  and  horizontally ;  if  placed 
obliquely,  the  ground  of  the  design  would  not  be  well  filled.  The  rosette 
should  occupy  about  two-thirds  of  the  ground. 

The  field  of  each  unit  should  be  considered,  in  order  to  determine  the  shape  and 
proportion  of  the  unit.  In  this  case,  by  drawing  the  diameters  of  the  square  on 
the  board,  the  fields  for  the  units  are  shown  to  be  squares  on  their  diagonals.  As 
the  field  of  the  unit  is  a  square,  the  unit  should  be  rather  wide  in  proportion 
to  its  height. 

The  motive  of  a  design  may  be  geometric,  historic,  or  from  plant- 
form.  In  this  exercise  the  motive  is  a  plant-form,  the  dwarf  cornel  or 
bunchberry.  As  this  is  a  wild  flower,  growing  in  the  woods  and  not 
accessible  to  all,  an  illustration  is  given  in  the  drawing-book.  In 
some  respects,  it  is  a  curious  plant.  The  flowers  are  very  small,  of 
a  greenish  color  and  clustered  in  a  head,  the  cluster  being  surrounded 
by  a  four-leaved  white  involucre  looking  like  a  white  corolla.  The 
illustration  shows  a  difference  in  shape  and  proportion  between  the 
leaves  of  the  involucre  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant  lower  down  on 
the  stem.  The  varying  curves  and  their  subtile  beauty  should  be 
studied 


BOOK  iv.]     DECORATIVE  DESIGN.  — FROM   THE  BUNCHBERRY.     Ill 

D.  B.,  page  N. —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  IX. 

Practice.  —  Two  verticals  are  printed  as  the  axes  of  two  units.  On  the  first  draw, 
from  the  leaf  of  the  plant,  a  unit,  open  at  the  base ;  on  the  second,  draw  from  the 
leaf  of  the  involucre,  a  unit,  open  at  the  base. 


D.  B.,  page  N,  completed.  D.  B.,    page  9,  completed. 

D.  B.,  page  9.  —  Drawing  the   Rosette. 

Study  for  the  Design.  —  (The  teacher  should  lead  pupils  to  look 
for  the  whole  effect,  as  to  proper  filling  of  the  space,  as  to  simplicity, 
as  to  adherence  to  the  motive,  as  to  beauty  of  curvature,  as  to  contrast 
and  variety  by  proper  balancing  of  curved  and  straight,  rounded  and  an- 
gular, as  to  stability  by  union  at  the  centre,  as  to  harmony  by  the  agree- 
ment of  the  parts  and  as  to  repose  by  the  union  of  all  these  qualities.) 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  square  on  its  diagonals  in  the  space  at  the  right,  using  the  points 
given  as  the  ends  of  the  vertical  diagonal.  Add  the  diameters  to  make  the  fields 
for  the  units.  Study  the  upper  field ;  draw  on  the  vertical,  printed  under  the 
illustration,  a  unit  from  that  leaf  in  the  illustration  that  you  think  best  fitted 
to  fill  the  field.  In  drawing  this  unit,  think  not  only  of  the  beauty  of  curva- 
ture, but  also  of  the  character  of  curvature  that  seems  to  belong  to  the  plant. 

Draw  four  such  units  around  the  centre  of  the  square,  drawing  them  by  opposites. 
Study  the  effect  of  the  units  and  consider  whether  by  changing  the  shape  and 
proportion  slightly,  the  effect  wouM  be  improved.  Remember  that  too  many 
sharp  points  make  an  unpleasant  figure,  —  that  where  the  enclosing  figure  has  a 
pointed  effect,  it  is  very  seldom  desirable  that  the  unit  should  be  of  such  a  shape 
as  to  add  to  that  effect. 

Decide  on  and  draw  a  central  figure  of  suitable  size  to  give  the  effect  of  stability ; 
add  to  the  harmony  of  the  design,  by  making  the  central  figure  either  a  circle,  or  a 
figure  having  the  same  number  of  sides  as  the  enclosing  figure ;  add  to  the  variety 
in  the  figure  by  change  in  line  from  the  enclosing  figure.  Change  the  design 
where  the  effect  seems  to  require  it.  Erase  construction  lines  and  finish  in 
broad,  gray  lines. 


112 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  iv 


EXERCISE    X.  — Cylinder  and  Square  Prism  combined.  —  Drawing 
the   Facts.  — Three   Views. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  the  different  views  of  two  models  combined. 

Study  of  the  Models  by  Pupils.  —  Place  on  a  book  the  cylin- 
der and  square  prism  arranged  as  in  the  illustration  in  the  drawing- 
book.  What  is  the  proportion  of  the  cylinder  ?  /  to  2.  Of  the  square 
prism?  (i  to  2.)  How  do  the  two  models  compare  in  size? 

Lift  the  book  until  the  top  ot  the  square  prism  is  on  a  level  with 
the  eye  and  study  the  front  view.  What  would  you  draw  for  the  front 
view  ?  (A  horizontal  oblong,  I  to  2,  its  middle  half  hidden  by  a  vertical 
oblong  of  the  same  size  and  on  the  same  base.) 

Turn  the  left  end  of  the  book  toward  you ;  what  would  you  draw 
for  the  left  side  view  of  the  models  ?  (A  vertical  oblong,  with  a  square  of 
half  its  height  touching  it  at  the  left  and  on  a  line  with  it  at  the  base.) 

Turn  the  book  as  at  first  and  then  lower  it  so  as  to  get  the  top  view 
of  the  models.  What  would  you  draw  for  the  top  view  ?  (A  horizontal 
oblong  with  a  circle  below  it,  touching  the  middle  of  the  base  of  the  oblong 
and  having  a  diameter  equal  *to  half  the  base.) 

D,  B.,  page  O.—  Practice   page  for  Ex.  X. 

Practice.  —  A  horizontal  is  given  at  the  right  for  the  base  of  the  front  view  of  the 
models.     Quadrisect  it,  that  is,  bisect  it  and  bisect  each  half.     On  the  middle 
half  draw  the  front  view  of  the  cylinder  first  drawing  an 
indefinite  vertical  as  a  centre  line;    add  that   part    of    the 
(     ^\          square  prism  seen.     An  angle  is  given  at  the  left  for  the 
left  end  of  the  base  of  the  side  view.      Obtain  the  height 
of  the  two  models  by  movement  from  the  front  view  and 
draw  light  horizontals.      Add  the    verticals    necessary  for 
the  side  view. 

A  quarter  of  an  inch  above    the   front  view    draw    the 
top  view,  obtaining  its  width  from  left  to  right,  by  move« 


D.  B.,  page  1  O  completed. 

ment   up  from   the  front   view. 

D.  B.,  page    1O.—  Drawing  the  Three   Views. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  practice.     Finish  in  soft,  gray  lines* 


BOOK  iv.]  REVIEW.  — REPRESENTATION.  Uj 

EXERCISE    XI.  — Cylinder  and    Square   Prism.  — Appearance  below 
the   Level   of  the   Eye. 

From  Models. 

OBJECT.     To  read  a  drawing  of  three  views  of  two  models,  to  place  models  in  a  corre- 
sponding position,  below  the  eye ;  to  study  and  to  draw  their  appearance. 

Study  of  the  Drawing  and  the  Models.  —  Read  the  drawing 
on  page  n  of  the  drawing-book  and  tell  what  Figs,  i,  2,  and  3  are. 
Place  the  models  as  indicated  in  Fig.  2  and  below  the  eye.  What  is 
the  proportion  of  the  apparent  height  of  the  group  to  the  apparent 
width?  Which  appears  longer,  the  square  prism  from  left  to  right, 
or  the  cylinder  from  top  to  bottom  ?  Which  appears  longer,  the 
•nearer  or  the  further  edge  of  the  top  of  the  square  prism  ?  How 
does  the  apparent  width  of  the  top  of  the  cylinder  from  front  to  back, 
compare  with  the  top  of  the  square  prism  ?  Con- 
sider what  the  apparent  width  from  front  to  back, 
of  the  invisible  horizontal  faces  of  the  two  models 
would  be,  compared  with  each  other  and  also  with 
the  width  of  the  top  faces.  A  knowledge  of  the 
invisible  faces  as  here  illustrated,  is  necessary  in 
order  to  place  the  drawings  correctly  with  regard 
to  each  other. 

D.  B.,  p.    P    completed. 

D,  B.,  page  P, — Practice  page  for  Ex.  XI. 

Practice.  —  Study  the  models  carefully,  taking  measurement  on  the  pencil  (see 
second  page  of  Drawing  Book  cover).  Determine  about  the  space  to  be  occupied 
by  the  drawing  on  the  page,  by  light  indefinite  horizontals  and  verticals.  Draw 
the  appearance  of  the  cylinder,  drawing  a  complete  ellipse  for  the  base.  Draw 
the  appearance  of  the  square  prism.  Draw  the  table  line,  as  seen  on  page  10, 
remembering  that  it  should  be  above  the  further  line  of  the  base  of  the  square 
prism,  otherwise  the  group  will  appear  as  if  projecting  over  the  edge  of  the  table 
and  will  give  the  impression  of  being  insecurely  placed. 

D.   B.,  page    1  1. — Drawing  the  Appearance. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  f^r  practice  and  finish  the  drawing  in  soft  gray 
gray  lines,  making  the  farther  lir  »s  a  little  fainter  than  the  nearer  ones. 


114  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 

EXERCISE    XII.  — Natural  Growth.  —  From   Nature. 

Each  pupil  should  "bring  a  branch  of  leaves. 
OBJECT.    To  study  plant-form  and  growth  from  a  natural  branch. 

Study  of  a  Natural  Branch  by  Pupils.  —  Notice  the  general 
character  of  your  branch ;  is  it  sturdy,  showing  vigorous  growth,  or 
is  it  delicate  ?  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  stem  ?  Is  it 
straight  up,  or  straight  forward  ?  Or  does  it  bend  ?  Could  you  ex- 
press its  direction  by  one  straight  line,  or  would  two  or  three  straight 
lines  be  necessary  in  order  to  show  changes  in  direction  ? 

Study  the  Leaf  Arrangement.  —  Are  the  leaves  opposite  each 
other  or  are  they  alternate  ?  If  they  are  opposite,  see  if  all  the 
leaves  point  either  to  the  left  and  right,  or  if  some  point  toward 
you  and  some  point  away  from  you.  If  they  are  alternate,  notice  in 
what  direction  they  point. 

Compare  the  distances  between  the  leaves  or  between  the  pairs  of 
leaves  in  various  parts  of  the  stem.  Where  is  the  distance  the 
greatest  ?  the  least  ? 

Notice  the  upper  end  of  the  branch ;  are  there  two  leaves  at  the 
end  or  only  one  ?  Study  also  the  terminal  bud. 

Stand  a  book  on  its  end  on  the  back  part  of  your  desk  and  stand 
the  branch  up  between  the  leaves  of  the  book  at  the  top.  Take  pains 
to  place  the  branch  so  that  you  nave  the  most  pleasing  view.  Look 
at  the  proportion  of  the  width  to  the  height  of  the  whole  mass. 

You  have  learned  that  when  you  look  at  the  top  face  of  a  cube 
or  of  any  object,  it  does  not  appear  as  wide  from  front  to  back  as 
it  really  is.  This  appearance  is  called  foreshortening.  Do  any  of 
the  leaves  on  your  branch  appear  foreshortened? 

D.  B.,  page  Q.— Practice  page  for  Ex.  XII. 

Practice.  —  Plan  for  a  large  drawing  of  your  branch.  Block  in  the  stem  by  one  or 
more  straight  lines.  Indicate  the  shape  of  the  whole  mass  by  a  few  light  lines. 
Block  in  the  midribs  of  the  leaves  and  the  leaves  themselves.  Draw  the  curves 
of  the  stem  and  leaves  over  the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase  the  blocking-in. 


BOOK  iv.]  DECORATION.  US 

D.   B.,  page   12.  — Drawing  the   Branch. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  Compare  your  drawing  on 
the  practice  page  with  the  natural  branch.  Does  the  branch  in  your 
drawing  look  as  though  the  leaves  had  been  growing?  If  vigor 
seems  to  be  wanting  in  the  drawing,  study  the  natural  branch  again 
to  find  out  what  it  is  that  you  have  failed  to  see. 

From  which  side  does  the  light  fall  on  your  natural  branch  ?  Which 
is  the  dark  side  of  the  branch  ?  Look  at  the  illustration  in  the  drawing- 
book  ;  on  which  side  did  the  light  fall?  How  is  this  shown  in  the 
illustration  ? 

Notice  that  you  cannot  in  your  natural  branch  see  all  the  edge  of 
each  leaf  distinctly.  This  can  be  expressed  in  your  drawing,  as  in 
the  illustration,  by  broken  lines  and  lines  of  varying  thickness.  If 
your  leaves  are  toothed,  do  not  try  to  draw  every  tooth,  —  merely 
indicate  a  tooth  now  and  then. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  practice.  Erase  the  biocking-in  lines  where 
necessary.  Finish  in  gray  lines  varying  in  thickness,  making  them  darker  on 
the  side  away  from  the  light. 


Il6  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.  [BOOK  iv. 


LANGUAGE. 

TEACHERS  should  continue  to  give  pupils  practice  in  the  use  of  the 
terms  and  names  on  pages  28,  54,  and  88,  as  well  as  in  the  use  of 
those  given  below,  always  requiring  complete  sentences. 

Names  of  Models,  Objects,  and  Details. 

CONE  ;  vertex,  base,  altitude ;  frustum. 

TRIANGLE;  isosceles;  vertex,  base,  altitude. 

SQUARE;  on  its  diagonals. 

SPIRAL;  equable,  variable;  spire. 

CURVE;  reversed. 

BOOK;  title  piece. 

LEAF;  opposite,  alternate;  lobe. 

COLOR;  flat  wash,  graded  wash. 

Terms  of  Construction. 

FACTS;  geometric  view,  dimension,  foreshortening. 

LINES;  centre  line,  working  line. 

CONSTRUCTIVE  DESIGN;  proportion,  profile  curves. 

Terms  of  Representation, 

APPEARANCE;  converge,  foreshortening. 
EDGES  ;  receding. 

Terms  of  Decoration. 

BORDER;  wave  line,  scroll. 

ARRANGEMENT;  repeat;  alternation. 

EFFECT;  Balance,  Stability,  Simplicity,  Contrast. 

ORNAMENT  ;  Egyptian  Wave  Scroll ;  Gothic,  Twelfth  Century. 


BOOK     V. 


CONSTRUCTION. 

Facts  of  Form. 

Working-Drawings . 


f  SOLIDS:    Cube,  Square  Pyramid,  Square  Plinth, 

Square,  Equi.  Tri.,  and  Hexagonal  Prisms. 
I  OBJECTS  :  "Writing1  Desk,  Common  Object. 
1  CONSTRUCTIVE  DESIGN  :   Common  Object. 

MAKING:     Square    Pyramid,   Hexagonal  Prism, 
I        Common  Object. 


REPRESENTATION.        f  SQUARE  PRISM,  CUBE,  SQUARE  PLINTH. 

BOOKS,  BOXES. 
Appearance  of  Form.      1  NATURAL  gpRAY  QR  BRANCH. 

Picture-Drawings.          [  COMPOSITION:  Group  of  Models  and  Objects. 


DECORATION. 

Ornamentation  of  Form. 

Original  Design. 


fHISTORIC  ORNAMENT;  Fleur-de-lis. 
J  NATURAL  GROWTH  :  Spray  or  Branch. 
]  DECORATIVE    DESIGN :    Modification   of  Units, 

I       Borders,  Panels. 

117 


120 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  v. 


DRILL     EXERCISES. 

Drawing-Book,  page  A. 

OBJECT.    Practice  for  proper  position,  pencil-holding,  and   free   arm  movement,  hori- 
zontal, vertical,  oblique. 

Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Before  beginning  work  in  the  book, 
be  sure  that  pupils  know  how  to  hold  their  pencils  for  free  movement 
and  drawing.  Give  practice  in  movement  with 
the  pencil  in  each  direction,  and  see  that  each 
pupil  holds  the  pencil  properly  (see  Figs,  i, 
2,  3,  4,  p.  xiii). 

Practice.  —  Draw  horizontals  from  a,  b,  c,  d,  pending  these  lines  directly  below  9. 
Draw  verticals  from  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  ending  these  lines  directly  opposite  f. 

Draw  an  oblique  line  from  i  to  a  and  lines  parallel  to  it,  from  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.,  as  in 
page  A,  completed. 

Draw  an  oblique  from  e  to  the  lower  end  of  the  vertical  drawn  from  i  and  lines  par- 
allel to  it  from  d,  f,  b,  a,  o,  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  as  in  page  A,  completed. 

Practice  arm  movement  for  each  line  before  drawing.     No  erasing: 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

x 

x 

X 

x 

x 

x 

x, 

x 

X 

X 

X 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

x 

x 

X 

x 

K 

X 

^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

^ 

x 

x 

x 

X 

x 

k 

X 

x 

ov 


O     C 


D.  B.,  page  A,  completed.  D,  B.,  page  B,  completed. 

Drawing-Book,  page  B. 

OBJECT.    Practice  in  laying  out  a  page,  —  giving  a  suggestion  of  surface  covering,  — 
proper  position,  pencil-holding,  free  arm  movement,  horizontal,  vertical,  circular. 

Study  of  the  Oblong. — Turn  to  D.  B.,  page  i,  and  study  the 
oblong  made  by  the  marginal  lines.  What  are  the  dimensions  of  this 
obloi:g  ?  How  wide  is  the  margin  of  the  page  at  the  ,top  and  bottom  ? 
at  the  left  and  right  ? 


BOOK   V.] 


DRILL    EXERCISES. 


121 


Practice.  —  Free  movement,  free  drawing.  Lay  out  the  page  according  to  the 
directions  for  Practice  at  the  top  of  page  91.  In  each  square  draw  a  circle 
2"  in  diameter.  Finish,  as  in  the  illustration,  p.  120,  page  B,  completed,  by 
drawing  circles  i"  in  diameter,  semicircles,  and  quadrants;  or,  if  you  prefer,  as 
in  illustration,  p.  90,  page  B,  completed. 

Drawing-Book,  page  C. 

OBJECT.    To  give  a  slight  review  of  previous  work  in  Construction ;  the  top  views  of 
familiar  models  and  their  names  being  given,  to  draw  the  front  view. 

Study  of  the  Page  by  Pupils.  —  Name  the  figures  on  the  page. 
(Circle,  square,  equilateral  triangle,  square  on  its  diagonals^]  These  fig- 
ures are  top  views  of  geometric  solids,  well  known  to  you ;  the  solids 
are  all  of  the  same  height.  Fig.  i  is  the  top  view  of  a  cylinder;  the 
proportion  of  width  to  height  of  the  cylinder  is  i  to  2  ;  what  would  you 
draw  for  the  front  view  ?  (An  upright  oblong  of  the  proportion  of  i  to  2.) 
Fig.  2  is  the  top  -view  of  a  square  prism.  What  would  you  draw  for 
the  front  view?  (The  same  as  for  the  cylinder^}  Fig.  3  is  the  top  view 
of  an  equi.  tri.  prism;  how  many  vertical  edges  would  you  see  in  the 
front  view  ?  What  would  you  draw  for  the  front  view  ?  (An  upright  ob- 
long with  a  vertical  line  through  the  centred)  Fig.  4  is  the  top  view  of  a 
square  prism,  turned  at  an  angle  of  45°;  how  many  vertical  edges  would 
you  see  in  the  front  view?  What  would  you  draw  for  the  front  view? 

A  centre  dot-and-dash  line  is  printed  for  the  two  views  of  the  cylinder. 
Centre  lines  are  frequently  made  dot-and-dash  lines,  to  distinguish 
them  from  working  lines  and  from  the  details  of  the  object. 

Practice.  —  As  these  solids  are  all  of  the  same  height,  two  horizontals  across  the 
page  will  serve  to  give  an  upper  and  a  lower 
line  for  all  the  front  views.  Begin  \"  below  the 
lower  corner  of  the  square  on  its  diagonals, 
move  horizontally  to  the  left  edge  of  the  page, 
then  draw  a  horizontal  across  the  page. 

Lay  out  the  front  views,  by  drawing  centre 
lines,  and  light  verticals  downward  from  the 
top  views.  Finish  the  front  views  in  gray  lines. 


V 


D.  B.,  page  C,  completed. 


122  TEACHER'S    MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 


CONSTRUCTION. 

EXERCISE    I — Cube    facing.— Cube   turned.  — Square    Pyramid 

turned. 

MODELS.  —  Cube,  Cone,  Squire  Pyramid. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  form  of  a  square  pyramid;   to  study  and  to  draw  the  facts  of 
a  square  pyramid  facing,  and  of  a  cube  and  a  square  pyramid  turned  at  45D. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils.  —  Here  is  a  group  of  three 
models  ;  name  them  if  you  can.  Does  the  new  model  resemble  more 
the  cube  or  the  cone  ?  In  what  respect  is  it  like  and  in  what  unlike 
the  cone  ?  It  is  called  a  pyramid.  In  what  respect  is  it  like  a  cube  ? 
(//  has  a  square  base.)  Hence  it  is  called  a  square  pyramid. 

Making  the  Model.  —  Turn  to  page  S,  cut  out  the  pattern,  fold  and 
paste  to  make  a  hollow  pyramid. 

Place  the  pyramid  upright  and  facing  you.  Look  directly  down 
on  it ;  what  do  you  see  ?  (A  square)  What  else  ?  (A  point  and 
oblique  edges.)  Where  shall  the  point  be  made  ?  (In  the  centre  of  the 
squared)  Find  'one  of  these  edges  on  the  model,  and  trace  its  whole 
length  with  your  finger.  From  what  point  in  the  top  view  does  it 
start  ?  ( The  centre)  Where  does  it  end  ?  (At  a  corner  of  the  base.) 
In  this  way  study  the  whole  of  the  top  view.  What  should  be  drawn 
for  the  top  view  ?  (A  square  and  its  diagonals?) 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  front  view  ?  (An  isosceles  triangle)  The 
altitude  of  the  pyramid,  that  is,  the  distance  from  the  vertex  to  the 
centre  of  the  base,  gives  the  height  of  the  fropt  view.  Stand  the 
model  on  the  desk,  rest  a  book  horizontally  on  the  vertex,  and  measure 
the  vertical  distance  from  the  book  to  the  desk.  Compare  this  distance 
with  the  slant-height  of  the  pyramid,  that  is,  the  distance  from  the  ver- 
tex to  the  centre  of  one  of  the  edges  of  the  base,  and  also  with  the 
length  of  an  oblique  edge  of  a  triangular  face. 

Study  the    pyramid    turned,  in  the  same  way. 
D.  B.,  page  D. —   Practice   page    for   Ex.   I. 
Practice.  —  Pyramid  facing.     A  horizontal  is  printed  for  the  base  of  the   front  view 


BOOK   V.] 


CONSTRUCTION. —  CUBE,  PYRAMID   TURNED. 


123 


of  the  pyramid.  A  centre  line  is  also  printed.  Fix  a  point  on  the  centre  line 
for  the  vertex  of  the  front  view,  making  the  altitude  of  the  pyramid  twice  its 
width,  and  draw  the  sides.  From  each  end  of  the  base,  move  upward  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  page,  and  draw  a  light  vertical  downward  to  the  base. 

Above  the  front  view,  draw  the  top  view  of  ihe  pyramid  facing,  placing  the  centre  of 
the  view  on  a  level  with  the  cross  printed  at  the  right. 

Pyramid  turned  at  45°.  Draw  an  indefinite  centre  line  through  the  given  point, 
the  centre  of  the  cross.  Using  the  given  point  as  centre,  draw  the  top  view,  — 
a  square  on  its  diagonals,  making  the  diagonals  equal  to  the  diagonals  of  the 
top  view  of  the  pyramid  facing.  Draw  indefinite  verticals  downward  from  the 
left,  lower  and  right  corners  of  the  top  view,  and  draw  the  front  view,  making  its 
height  equal  that  of  the  front  view  of  the  pyramid  facing. 


X 


D.  B.,  page  D,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page    1  ,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  1 .      Drawing   two   views   of  Cube    and  Pyramid   turned. 

Observation  Exercises.  —  Turn  your  models  at  angles  of  45°. 
Did  you  ever  see  any  object  in  which  there  was  a  cube  or  a  pyramid 
turned  ?  What  would  you  draw  for  the  top  view  of  the  cube  turned  at 
45°?  (A  square  on  its  diagonals)  Of  the  pyramid  turned?  (7/ie 
same,  with  its  diagonals)  How  many  edges  are  visible  in  the  front 
view  of  the  cube  turned  ?  (Seven)  Of  the  pyramid  turned  ?  (five.) 
Drawing.  —  The  front  and  top  two  views  of  a  cube  are  given,  to  show  the  size  of 

the  drawings  to  be  made. 
Cube  turned.  —  A  centre  line  and  the  centre  of    the   top    view  are   given.      Follow 

the  directions  given  above  for  the  top  view  of  the  square  pyramid  turned.     Draw 

light  verticals  down  from  the  left,  lower  and  right   corners,  and    complete    the 

front  view. 
Pyramid  turned.     The  centre  of  the  top  view  is  given.     Draw  according  to  directions 

given  for  practice. 
Finish  the  top  and  front  views  in  gray  lines. 


124  TEACHER'S   MA-NUAL.  [BOOK  v. 


EXERCISE  II.     Writing-Desk.- Three  Views.  —  Dimension  Lines. 

MODELS:    A  brick  or  a  block  of  the  same  size   and  proportion;   a  small 
•writing- desk,  if  practicable. 

OBJECT.    To  make  three  views  of  a  writing-desk,  giving  not  only  the  facts  of  its  form, 
but  also  its  size  ;  to  make  a  "figured"  drawing. 

Study  of  the  Brick  by  Pupils.  —  Here  is  a  brick,  resting  on  its 
long,  broad  face,  the  long,  narrow  face  in  front  of  you.  You  wish  to 
make  in  your  drawing-book  a  drawing,  from  which  a  carpenter  could 
make  a  block,  having  the  same  form.  What  are  its  dimensions  ?  (2'^ 
thick,  or  high,  8"  from  left  to  right,  4"  from  front  to  back?)  How  many 
inches  wide  is  your  drawing-book  ?  Is  it  wide  enough  to  make  the  left 
end  and  front  views  full  size  ?  What  can  you  do  then  ?  (Make  t/u  views 
of  the  same  proportions  as  in  the  object,  and  mark  the  size?)  What  is  the 
shape  and  proportion  of  the  front  view?  (A  horizontal  oblong,  of  the  pro- 
portion of  i  to  4.)  Of  the  left  end  view  ?  Of  the  top  view  ? 

Open  your  books  at  page  E  and  see  how  the  dimensions  are  marked 
there.  The  dotted  lines  with  a  dimension  marked  in  the  centre  are 
called  dimension  lines, —  the  arrow-heads  show  the  limits  of  the  dimen- 
sion. Such  a  drawing  is  called  a  "figured"  drawing,  because  the 
dimensions  are  given  in  figures.  Note  the  short  dotted  lines  extending 
from  each  view,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  dimensions  out  a  little 
from  the  view.  Note  also  that  the  top  view  is  as  wide  from  front  to 
back  as  the  end  view  is  from  left  to  right.  A  drawing  which  shows, 
as  this  does,  the  facts  of  form  and  size  of  an  object  is  called  a  working- 
drawing. 

Study  for  laying  out  the  page.  —  On  this  page  you  wish  to 
make  a  large  drawing  of  the  three  views.  How  many  inches  would 
you  have  horizontally,  if  you  should  leave  margins  like  those  on  page  2  ? 
How  can  you  plan  for  a  left  side  view,  and  for  a  front  view  twice  as 
wide  as  the  side  view  ?  (Make  the  margin  at  lefi  and  right,  y  narrower 
so  as  to  make  the  width  of  the  space  for  the  drawing,  9^";  make  the  end 
view  3"  and  the  front  view  6",  leaving  J"  space  between  these  two  views.} 

*  In  the  finished  work  of  draughtsmen  the  working-lines  in  a  working-drawing  are  frequently  dotted,  as 
shown  in  this  exercise. 


BOOKV.]  CONSTRUCTION.— WRITING-DESK.  12$ 

D.  33.,  page  E. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  II. 

Practice.  —  Draw  a  horizontal  across  the  page,  •£"  above  the  lower  edge  of  the  page. 

Place  points  on  it  for  left  and  right  margins  and  for  left  end,  and  front  views. 

Determine  the  proper  height  of  these  views  and  draw  another  horizontal  across 

the  page. 
From  the  points  made  on  the  lower  horizontal  for  the   left  end  view,  move  upward  to 

the  upper  horizontal,  and  draw  verticals  downward  to  the  lower  horizontal,  thus 

completing  the  left  end  view. 

Complete  the  front  view  in  the  same  way  by  verticals. 
From  each  end  of  the  front  view  move  upward  nearly  to  the  title,  and  draw  verticals 

to  the  verticals  of  the  front  view.     Draw  a  horizontal  for  the  base  line  of  the  top 

view  \"  above  the  front  view,  determine  the  proportion  of  the  top  view  and  draw 

the  upper  horizontal.     Add  the  dimension  lines  and  figures. 

D.  B.,  page  2,     Drawing  three  views  of  a  Desk,  figured. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils.  —  What  object  does  the 
working-drawing  on  this  page  represent  ?  Read  the  drawing,  that  is, 
tell  what  it  means.  (The  drawing  shows  the  front,  left  and  top  views  of 
a  writing-desk,  6"  high,  12"  from  back  to  front,  18"  from  left  to  right. 
The  front  view  shows  that  the  upper  part  of  the  desk  is  2"  high  at  the  front 
and  the  lower  part  4"  high.  The  left  end  view  shows  that  the  upper  and 
lower  parts  are  each  3"  high  at  the  back  ;  and  that  the  desk  when  opened, 
would  slant  from  /'  high  at  the  back  to  2"  high  at  the  front.} 

Can  you  make  a  desk  from  this  drawing  ?  If  you  try,  remember  that 
the  piece  for  the  bottom  should  not  be  as  large  as  that  for  the  top  — 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  thickness  of  the  sides.  For  the  same 
reason,  the  pieces  for  the  ends  should  not  be  as  long  as  the  end  view  in 
the  drawing. 

Drawing.  —  Lay  out  the  views  according  to  the  directions  given  for  Practice.     Finish 
the  views  in  broad  lines;  add  the  dimension  lines  and  figures. 


126  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 

EXERCISE  III.  — Hexagonal  Prism. —Three  Views. 

MODELS:  Square  Prism,  Hexagonal  Prism, 

OBJECT.  To  study  and  to  draw  the  facts  of  the  form  of  a  hexagonal  prism,  and  also 
the  construction  of  the  plane  figure  derived  from  it,  —  the  hexagon. 

Study  of  the  two  Models.  — What  name,  common  to  both,  have 
these  two  solids  ?  (Prism.)  How  many  oblong  faces  has  each?  (The 
square  prism  has  four,  the  other  has  six.)  How  many  sides  has  the  base 
of  the  square  prism  ?  How  many  has  the  base  of  the  other  prism  ? 
How  many  angles  ?  The  base  is  called  a  hexagon  because  it  has  six 
sides  and  angles,  and  as  all  the  sides  and  angles  are  equal  it  is  called 
a  regular  hexagon.  As  prisms  are  named  from  their  bases,  this  prism 
is  called  a  hexagonal  prism. 

Draw  a  horizontal  on  the  board ;  quadrisect  it,  and  beginning  some 
distance  above  the  horizontals,  draw  indefinite  verticals  through  the 
two  outer  points.  On  the  left  vertical  place  a  point  as  far  from  the 
left  end  of  the  diagonal  as  the  distance  between  the  verticals,— 
repeat  below.  On  the  right  vertical  place  points  on  a  level  with  those 
on  the  left.  Draw  ,the  hexagon.1  Describe  the  diameter  of  a  circle ; 
of  a  square  :  the  diagonal  of  a  square.  Where  would  the  diagonal  of 
a  hexagon  run  ?  (From  one  angle  to  an  opposite  angle?) 

Making  the  Model.  —  Detach  page  K,  cut  out  the  pattern,  fold 
and  paste  to  make  a  hexagonal  prism.  What  would  you  draw  for  the 
top  view  of  the  upright  prism  ?  (A  regular  hexagon?)  How  many  ver- 
tical edges  are  there  in  the  front  view  ?  (Four)  Draw  the  front  view 
on  the  board,  first  verticals  from  the  four  lower  angles  of  the  hexagon- 
then  horizontals  for  the  top  and  base  lines  of  the  front  view.  How 
high  should  it  be?  (Twice  as  high  as  the  diagonal  of  the  hexagon.) 

1  If  you  have  preserved  page  C  of  your  drawing-book,  cut  out  the- printed  circle,  — fold  it  through  the 
middle  and  crease  it.  Keeping  it  folded  as  a  semicircle,  fold  it  from  the  centre  so  as  to  make  three  equal 
parts  and  crease  the  folds.  Opening  the  circle,  you  will  find  three  diameters.  Fold  over  the  curved  edge 
from  the  end  of  one  diameter  to  the  end  of  the  next,  —  repeat  five  times.  You  will  have  then  a 
regular  hexagon  with  three  diagonals.  Fold  the  end  of  one  diagonal  over  to  the  centre  of  the  figure 
and  crease,  —  fold  the  other  end  of  the  same  diagonal  to  the  centre  and  crease.  Open  the  hexagon,  — 
tlie  folds  just  made  divide  the  semidiagonal  in  the  middle  and  end  just  at  the  ends  of  the  diagonals  on 
either  side.  Open  your  drawing-book  at  page  F,  and  you  will  see  there  the  folds  illustrated. 


BOOK  V.] 


CONSTRUCTION,  —  HEX  A  GONAL  PRISM. 


127 


D.  J5.,  page  F.    Practice   page  for  Ex.  III. 

Practice.  —  Hexagon.       Points   are    given   for  a  horizontal.      Draw   the   horizontal 

and  complete  the  hexagon,  as  above. 
Hexagonal  Prism.     The  top  view  is  printed.     Draw  the  front  view,  as  above. 


\ 


\ 


D.  B.,  page  F,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  3,  completed. 


D.  B.,  page  3.  —  Drawing  three  views  of  the  Hexagonal  Prism. 

Observation  Exercises  for  Pupils. —  Read  the  illustration.  (Three 
mews  of  an  upright  hexagonal  prism,  with  the  edge  toward  you.)  Look  at 
the  top  view  ;  how  many  angles  in  the  front  half?  How  many  vertical 
edges  in  the  front  view  ?  in  the  right  side  view  ?  How  wide  is  the 
front  view  ?  (As  wide  as  the  length  of  the  diameter  of  the  top  view?)  How 
wide  is  the  side  view  ?  (As  wide  as  the  length  of  the  diagonal  of  the  top 
view.) 

Place  the  prism  horizontally  from  left  to  right.  What  would  you  draw 
for  the  end  view  ?  for  the  front  view?  for  the  top  view  ? 

Drawing.  —  End  View.  Points  are  given  for  a  horizontal  diagonal  for  a  hexagon. 
Draw  the  diagonal  and  complete  the  hexagon  according  to  the  directions  above. 

Front  View.  From  the  three  angles  on  the  right  half  of  the  hexagon  draw  indefinite 
horizontals.*  On  the  centre  horizontal  fix  points  for  the  length  of  the  front 
view.  From  each  point  move  upward  to  the  upper  horizontal  and  draw  down- 
ward a  vertical  to  the  lowest  horizontal. 

Top  Viezv.  From  each  end  of  the  front  view  move  upward  nearly  to  the  title  and 
draw  verticals  downward  to  the  verticals  of  the  front  view.  On  the  left  vertical 
fix  points  for  the  left  end  of  the  top  view,  making  it  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  the 
end  view ;  fix  points  also  for  the  width  of  the  other  two  faces  seen  in  the  top 
view;  draw  four  horizontals  to  complete  the  top  view. 

Finish  the  three  views  in  broad,  gray  lines. 


128  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 


REPRESENTATION. 

EXERCISE    IV.  — Square   Prism  and   Cube  turned   at   an    angle   off 

45°.  — Appearance. 

MODELS:  Square  Prism,  Cube. 

Previous  to  this  lesson  each  pupil  should  make  from  pasteboard  or  thick  paper,  a  model  of  a  square 
prism  and  a  cube  —  the  base  of  each  4"  on  a  side  —  the  altitude  of  the  square  prism  8". 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  the  appearance  of  a  prism  ,and  a  cube  turned  at  45^. 

Study  of  the  Models  by  Pupils.  —  Square  Prism.  Place  the 
prism  turned  at  an  angle  of  45°  on  a  pile  of  books,  so  that  the  middle 
of  the  prism  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  Fold  some  rather  stiff 
paper  to  make  two  strips  about  J"  wide  and  5"  or  6"  long.1  Hold  the 
strips  in  one  hand  so  that  one  strip  can  be  kept  vertical  and  the  other 
easily  moved  up  or  down  like  the  handle  of  a  pump.  Hold  the  strips 
at  arms'  length,  so  that  the  inner  point  of  intersection  will  be  between 
the  eye  and  the  nearest  upper  corner  of  the  model  and  so  that  the 
edge  of  the  vertical  strip  will  cover  the  nearest  vertical  edge  of  the 
model ;  then  move  the  other  strip  up  or  down  until  it  inclines  as 
much  as  the  horizontal  edge  appears  to  incline.  Keep  the  strips 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  your  face.  Study  the  other  receding  edges  in 
the  same  way. 

Compare  now  the  apparent  length  of  the  vertical  edges  by  measure- 
ment on  the  pencil ;  also  the  height  and  the  width  of  the  appearance. 

Cube.  Place  the  cube  so  that  the  top  is  on  a  level  with  the  eye  and 
study  it  in  the  same  way.  How  do  the  lower  receding  edges  appear  ? 
(Slanting  upward  toward  the  level  of  the  eye.)  Which  appears  longer,  the 
nearer  or  the  farther  vertical  edges  ? 

Study  edges  both  above  and  below  the  eye,  the  edges  of  an  open 
door,  pictures  on  a  side  wall,  books,  boxes,  tables,  etc.,  all  turned  at 
an  angle,  and  note  that  all  retreating  horizontal  edges  above  or  below 
the  eye,  appear  to  slant,  —  those  above  the  eye  appearing  to  slant 
downward,  and  those  below  the  eye  appearing  to  slant  upward. 

1  The  blank  pages  in  the  middle  of  the  diawing-book  are  intended  for  any  use  that  the  teachers  may 
require.     The  strips  can  be  taken  from  one  of  the  blank  pages. 


BOOK  v.]  REPRESENTATION.— SQUARE  PRISM.— CUBE  TURNED.    1 29 

(The  illustrations  show  the  use  of  a  pencil  in  discovering  the  apparent 
direction  of  receding  edges  and  of  the  strips  of  paper.) 


D.  B.,  page  G.     Practice  page  for  Ex.  IV. 


Practice.  —  Upon  the  left  of  the  page,  make  a  large  drawing  of  the  appearance 
of  the  square  prism,  placed  so  that  the  middle  is  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  —  on 
the  right  of  the  page,  a  large  drawing  of  the  appearance  of  a  cube,  standing  on 
a  level  with  the  square  prism,  having  the  top  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 

Square  Prism.  Indicate  the  height  a'nd  width  of  the  drawing  by  light  lines,  noting 
the  horizontal  printed  for  the  level  of  the  eye.  Draw  the  vertical  for  the  nearest 
edge.  Draw  upper  edges,  then  lower,  slanting  as  much  as  they  appeared  to,  when 
the  strips  of  paper  were  used  —  then  left  and  right  verticals.  Draw  a  table  line. 

Cube.  Draw  the  cube  according  to  the  directions  for  the  square  prism.  Draw  a 
table  line. 


D.  B.,  Page  4,  completed. 


D.  B.,  Page  5,  completed. 


Observation   Exercises   by  Pupils.  —  Read  the  drawings,  Figs. 
i,  2,  and  3.     Study  again  the  square  prism  and  the  cube  as   above. 


D.  B.,  page  4.  — Drawing  the  appearance  of  the  Prism  and  the   Cube. 
Drawing. —  Follow  the  directions  for  Practice.     Finish  in  broad,  soft,  gray  lines. 


130 


TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 


[BOOK  v. 


EXERCISE  V.  — Square  Plinth  turned  at  an  angle  of  45° Appear- 
ance  below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

MODELS  :  Square  plinth,  "base  Q" ,  side  2",  made  by  the  pupil. 

OBJECT.  To  study  and  to  draw  the  appearance  of  a  square  plinth  below  the  level  of 
the  eye,  turned  at  45°. 

Study  of  the  Model  by  Pupils. — Place  the  square  plinth 
turned  at  45°  so  that  its  base  will  be  as  far  below  the  eye  as  the  base 
of  the  cube  in  the  preceding  exercise.  Study  its  appearance  by  the 
methods  suggested  in  Ex.  IV. 

L.  of  E. 


(Lead  pupils  to  state  during  the  study  of  the  model  that  — 

1.  All    retreating  horizontal  edges  appear  to  incline  toward  the  level  of  the    eye, 

and  must  be  so  drawn. 

2.  All  parallel  horizontal  edges  retreating  from  the  eye  appear  to  converge  to  a  point 

on  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  must  be  drawn  so  that,  if  produced,  they  will  meet  in 
a  point  on  the  Level  of  the  Eye  (L.  of  E.) 

3.  Parallel  horizontal  edges  retreating  to  the  left  appear  to  converge  to  a  point  on 

the  level  of  the  eye  at  the  left  of  the  object ;  those  retreating  to  the  right  appear 
to  converge  to  the  right  ot  the  object.  These  points  are  called  respectively  Van- 
ishing Point  i  (V.  P.  i)  and  Vanishing  Point  2  (V.  P.  2). 

4.  For  rectangular  objects  standing  at  an  angle  of  45°,  V.  P.  i  and  V.  P.  2  are  eqi- 

distant  from  the  object. 

5.  The  farther  vertical  edges  appear  shorter  than  the  nearer,  and  must  be  so  drawn.) 

D.  B.,  page  H.     Practice  page  for  Ex.  V. 

Practice.  —  Draw  the  appearance   of   the   square  plinth    turned.      Remember   th? 
level  of  the   eye.     Follow  the  directions  for  the  square    prism,  Ex.  IV. 


BOOKV.]  REPRESENTATION.— RECTANGULAR  OBJECT  TURNED.  l$\ 
D.  B.,  page  5.     Drawing  the  appearance  of  the  Square  Plinth. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  the  square  prism,  placing  the  drawing  so  that 
it  will  be  on  a  line  with  the  drawing  on  page  4. 

EXERCISE    VI.  — Rectangular    Object    turned.  — Appearance    below 
the  level  off  the  eye. 

MODEL  :  Book  or  Oblong  Box. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  the  appearance  of  a  rectangular  object  below  the  level 
of  the  eye  turned  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

Study  of  the  Object  by  Pupils.  —  Place  a  book  or  a  box  in  the 
position  required  and  study  the  appearance  as  in  previous  exercises. 
Draw  the  book,  first  as  if  it  were  a  block  with  vertical  edges  —  then  add 
the  curving  out  of  the  back  and  the  curving  in  of  the  leaves. 

D.  B.,  page   1 ,  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VI. 

Practice.  —  Make  a  large  drawing  of  the  appearance  of  a  book  or  a  box,  placed  as 
required.     Consider  first  the  level  of  the  eye.     Follow  the  directions  in  Ex.  IV. 

D.  B.,  page  6t      Drawing    the    appearance    of    a    rectangular    Object 
turned. 

Observation  Exercises  for  pupils.  —  Are  the  edges  of  your 
book  a  little  broken  or  bent  anywhere  ?  If  so,  break  your  lines  a  little 
in  the  drawing. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  Practice.     Finish  the  drawing  in  broad,  soft 
gray  lines,  breaking  them  occasionally,  if  the  edges  of  the  book  are  worn. 


132 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


[BOOK  v. 


DECORATION. 

EXERCISE    VII — Fleur-de-lis. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  an  example  of  good  historic  ornament. 

Study  of  the  Copy  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  name  given  in  the 
drawing-book  to  Fig.  i  ?  to  Fig.  2  ?  to  Fig.  3  ?  Have  you  ever  seen 
the  flower  called  Fleur-de-lis  ?  Do  you  remember  how  some  of  its 
petals  curve  and  curl  ?  It  is  not  known  that  the  ornament  called  the 
Fleur-de-lis  was  taken  from  this  flower ;  but  the  curves  at  the  left  and 
right  sides  of  the  ornament  are  like  the  curves  of  the  curling  petals  of 
the  flower. 


This  ornament  has  been,  like  most  favorite  ornaments,  variously 
modified,  in  different  ages  and  countries,  but  it  is  readily  recognized 
under  the  various  modifications,  having  always  the  broad,  erect  blade 
in  the  middle,  the  gracefully  curving  sides,  generally  a  band  or  a  sem- 
blance of  it,  and  a  spreading  base  as  in  Figs.  2  and  3.  The  tipper 
part  only  of  a  Florentine  Fleur-de-lis  is  given  in  the  the  drawing-book. 
The  complete  figure  is  here  illustrated ;  also  a  surface  covering  in  which 
a  different  Fleur-de-lis  is  used,  from  the  walls  of  Ste.  Chapelle,  Paris. 


BOOK  v.]  DECORA  TION.  —  FLE  UR-DE-LIS.  1 3  3 

D.  B.,  page  J. —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VII. 

Practice.  —  Draw  blocking-in  lines  on  Fig.  i,  p.  7.  On  the  left  half  of  page  J,  draw 
simply  the  centre  line,  connecting  the  points  given  and  two  horizontals,  one 
for  the  greatest  width  of  the  figure,  and  one  for  the  base,  then  the  blocking-in 
lines,  studying  carefully  the  various  proportions. 

On  the  right  half  of  the  page,  one-half  of  the  fleur-de-lis  is  given.  Draw  its  blocking 
in  lines.  Repeat  them  to  balance  on  the  right.  Draw  the  curves  on  the  right, 
first  practicing  movement  on  the  printed  copy. 

D.  B.,  page  7.  —  Drawing  the  Fleur-de-lis  ornament. 

Observation  Exercises  by  Pupils.  —  What  is  the  proportion  of 
Fig.  i  ?  About  how  high  can  you  make  your  drawing  in  the  space  at 
the  right,  leaving  a  suitable  margin  at  the  top  and  bottom  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  Fig.  i,  enlarged  to  fill  the  space  at  the  right.  First  draw  a  light 
centre  line,  then  blocking-in  lines.  Before  drawing  each  curve,  practice  movement 
to  get  the  feeling  of  the  curve.  Erase  the  centre  and  blocking-in  lines  and  finish 
the  Fleur-de-lis,  in  broad,  gray  lines. 


134  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 

EXERCISE  VIII.  — Unit  of  Design  —  Modification  of  Unit. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  modifications  of  a  familiar  unit. 

Study  by  Pupils.  —  Open  your  drawing-books  at  p.  8.  Fig.  2  is 
a  unit  which  is  already  familiar  to  you  by  its  use  in  previous  books ; 
its  base  is  simply  a  point.  A  vertical  figure  resting  on  a  very  sharp 
point  gives  an  unpleasant  impression  of  being  insecurely  placed.  How 
is  this  unit  modified  in  Fig.  3  ?  (Its  shape  is  made  more  pleasing  by  the 
substitution  of  curved  lines  for  straight ;  and  it  is  broadened  at  the  base 
giving  the  impression  of  greater  stability^)  Do  you  remember  the  form  of 
a  tree,  —  the  strong  trunk,  the  broad  branching  at  .the  top,  and  the 
spreading  roots  at  the  base? 

How  is  this  unit  modified  in  Fig.  4  ?  (By  division  in  the  upper  part 
and  at  the  base.)  The  divisions  of  Fig.  4,  a  partially  divided  figure,  are 
held  together  by  the  strong  undivided  stem,  as  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
holds  the  branches  together.  If  the  divisions  are  carried  too  low, 
there  will  be  an  apparent  tendency  to  split,  and  thus  the  strength  of 
the  unit  will  be  lost.  If  the  trunk  or  stem  is  made  too  slender,  the  unit 
becomes  painfully  weak.  In  a  tree,  the  trunk  is  generally  very  slender 
in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  branching,  but  in  a  tree  the  strength 
comes  from  the  growing  life.  In  a  figure,  strength  must  be  expressed 
in  the  trunk  or  stem  by  a  greater  proportional  width.  Note  the  pro- 
portional width  of  parts  in  the  unit. 

How  is  this  unit  modified  in  Fig.  5  ?  (The  unit  is  wholly  divided,  and 
the  stability  is  obtained  by  holding  the  ^arts  together  by  a  band.)  The  band 
should  be  placed  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  unit.  What  would  be 
the  effect  if  there  were  no  band  ? 

D.  B,,  page  M .  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  VIII. 

Practice.  —  Construction  lines  are  given  for  two  units.  On  the  figure,  at  the  left, 
draw  Fig.  i,  page  8,  on  that  at  the  right  an  original  modification  of  it.  Be 
careful  about  breaking  the  outline  too  much,  and  making  too  many  sharp  points 
which  are  unpleasantly  suggestive  of  thorns  and  briars. 


BOOK  v. ]  DECORA  TION.  —  MODIFICA  TION  OF  UNIT.  1 3  5 

D.  B.,  page  8.  —  Drawing  a  Modification  of  the  Unit. 

Drawing. —  Draw  Fig.  I,  lightly  in  the  space  at  the  right.  Modify  the  shape  of  the 
unit  by  changing  the  general  lines  or  by  rounding  angles.  Avoid  irregularities 
and  many  sharp  points.  Erase  construction  lines  and  finish  the  modification  in 
broad,  gray  lines. 


EXERCISE  IX.  —  Decorative  Design.  —  Border. 

OBJECT.    To  study  the  modification  of  units  for  borders ;  to  design  and  to  draw  a  border. 

Study  of  the  Modification  of  Units.  —  Open  your  drawing-books 
at  page  9.  What  is  Fig.  i  ?  (A  border  made  by  the  repetition  of  circles?) 
Fig.  2  ?  (A  border  made  by  the  repetition  of  Fig.  I,  p.  8,  modified?)  How 
is  the  the  unit -changed?  (The  lower  part  is  cut  of,  giving  the  effect  of 
greater  stability.)  Describe  Figs.  3,  4,  5  and  6,  Do  the  units  of  Figs. 
2  and  5  and  of  Figs.  3  and  6  resemble  each  other  ?  (The  units  of 
Figs.  2  and  5  show  the  blocking-in  of  the  units  of  j  and  6?) 

D.  B.,  page  N .  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  IX. 

Practice.  —  Draw  on  the  first  centre  line,  one  of  the  units  which  you  drew  for  Ex. 
VIII,  modifying  it  for  a  border,  first  blocking  it  in.  Repeat  the  unit  on  the 
second  centre  line. 

D.  B.,  page  9   — Drawing  a  Border. 

* 

Drawing.  —  Through  the  points  given,  draw  long  horizontals  as  marginal  lines  for  a 
border,  extending  as  far  to  the  left  and  right  as  the  borders  above.  Trisect  the 
third  horizontal  from  the  top  and  bisect  each  division.  Beginning  a  little  below 
the  second  horizontal,  draw  to  each  point  of  bisection  a  vertical  as  a  centre  line 
for  a  unit.  On  these  lines,  repeat  the  unit,  drawn  in  the  border  on  page  N, 
blocking-in  first.  Erase  the  centre  and  blocking-in  lines  and  finish  in  broad,  sofy 
gray  lines. 


136  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 


EXERCISE  X.  — Working-Drawing. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  the  facts  of  form  with  the  dimensions,  of  a  common 
object  — that  is;  to  make  a  working-drawing  of  the  object. 

Study  by  Pupils.  —  Decide  on  a  simple  object  that  you  desire 
to  make,  a  box,  a  toy  sled,  a  footstool,  a  tray,  a  toy  house,  book  shelves, 
a  picture-frame,  a  mallet,  a  toy  trunk,  or  something  similar.  Think  of 
the  proportions  and  the  form  that  you  wish  the  object  to  have,  and 
determine  the  size.  If  the  object  is  to  be  suited  to, a  particular  pur- 
pose, remember  to  adapt  the  form  to  the  purpose  ;  if  the  object  is  to 
answer  a  general  purpose,  do  not  decide  at  random  on  any  form  that 
occurs  to  you,  but  try  to  think  of  a  form  that  will  be  pleasing,  —  strive 
for  beauty  of  form. 

Make  sketches  of  the  shape  of  three  views  of  the  object  as  you  have 
conceived  it,  —  add  the  details,  —  and  "figure  "  the  drawing. 

D.  B.,  page  O.  —Practice  page  for  Ex.  X". 

Practice.  —  Study  the  space  and  lay  out  the  page  for  as  large  a  drawing  of  the  three 
views  as  the  space  will  allow.  Draw  the  three  views  from  your  sketches,  adding 
"  figured  "  dimension  lines. 

D.  B.,  paga'lO.—  Making  a  Working-Drawing. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  and  finish  the  three  views  drawn  on  page  O. 
Making.  —  Make  the  object  from  the  drawing. 


EXERCISE  XI. -Group  of  Objects. 

OBJECT.    To  arrange  a  pleasing  group;  to  study  the  appearance  of  the  group,  to  draw 
the  appearance. 

Arrangement  of  a  group  by  Pupils.  —  Arrange  a  pile  of  books 
or  a  group  of  three  simple  objects,  studying  to  make  the  group  as  pleas- 
ing as  possible  in  general  effect.  A  pile  of  books  can  be  arranged  so 
as  to  have  a  very  good  and  picturesque  effect, — if  you  arrange  them 
so  that  there  will  be  Unity,  Variety  and  Repose  in  the  whole. 


BOOK  V.] 


KEPRESENTA  TION.  —  RE  VIE  W. 


137 


In  arranging  a  group  (see  p.  68),  remember  to  consider : 

1.  The  place  of  the  principal  object. 

2.  The  place  of  the  secondary  objects. 

3.  The  figure  made  by  the  group  on  the  table. 

4.  Partial  view  of  some  of  the  objects. 

5.  Upper  line  of  the  group. 

6.  Unity,  Variety  and  Repose  of  the  group. 

D.  B.,  page  P. — Practice  page  for  Ex.  XL 

Practice.  —  Having  arranged  a  group,  obtain  the  proportion  of  the  width  to  the 
height  of  the  group,  by  measurement  on  the  pencil.  Indicate  by  light  lines 
the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  group,  of  a  suitable  size  for  the  page  and  of  the 
proper  proportion.  Consider  and  represent  the  level  of  the  eye.  Block  in  first 
the  principal  object,  and  then  the  others.  Draw  the  table  line,  studying  to  place 
it  well.  Draw  the  curves  over  the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase  or  finish. 

D.  B.,  page   11.  —  Drawing  the  Outlines  of  a  Group. 

Observation  by  Pupils.  —  Describe  the  illustrations  in  the  draw- 
ing-book with  reference  to  the  points  mentioned.  Improve  the  arrange- 
ment of  your  group  if  you  can. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  given  for  practice.  Correct,  erase  wrong  lines,  and 
finish  in  broad,  soft,  gray  lines,  varying  in  thickness  and  clearness  according  to  the 
character  of  the  edges  and  profiles,  and  according  to  the  distance  of  the  edges 
from  the  eye,  making  the  nearer  parts  the  stronger. 


138 


TEACHERS  MANUAL. 


[BOOK  v. 


EXERCISE  XII.  — Decorative  Design.— Panel. 

OBJECT.    To  study  and  to  draw  a  spray  or  branch  of  leaves  or  flowers  from  nature  — 
to  draw  a  unit  and  a  border  for  a  panel,  using  the  leaves  and  flowers  as  motives. 

Study  of  a  Spray  or  Branch.  —  Place  the  spray  or  branch  in  a 
book,  as  described  p.  114.  Notice  the  general  character  of  your 
branch ;  is  it  sturdy,  showing  vigorous  growth,  or  is  it  delicate  ?  What 
is  its  general  direction  ?  Notice  how  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  placed 
on  the  stem,  how  they  spring  from  the  stem,  and  in  what  order  they 
appear.  Notice  any  foreshortening.  Study  the  light  and  dark  side. 

Study  for  the  Unit  in  the  Panel. — The  unit  for  the  panel 
can  be  made,  either  by  modifying  the  unit  already  given,  by  the  use  of 
curves  selected  from  the  spray,  or  by  showing  the  character  of  the 
plant  in  a  unit  made  by  conventionalizing  the  spray.  The  unit  may 
be  cut  off  at  the  base,  as  in  the  border,  Ex.  IX.,  to  express  stability. 


Fig-  i.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  ' 

Figs  i  and  2  are  modified  by  curves  selected  from  the  lilac  leaf; 
Fig,  3.  shows  a  unit  modified  from  a  spray  of  lilacs,  showing  its  sturdy 
growth ;  Fig.  4,  a  unit  from  violet  leaves  conventionalized,  retaining  the 
delicate  growth  of  the  plant. 

D.  B.,  page  Q,  —  Practice  page  for  Ex.  XII. 

Practice. — Branch.  Plan  for  a  large  drawing  on  the  left  half  of  the  page.  Block 
in  the  stem  and  the  shape  of  the  whole  mass  by  a  few  light  lines.  Block  in 
the  midribs  and  outlines  of  the  leaves.  Draw  the  curves  of  the  stem  and  leaves 
over  the  blocking-in  lines.  Do  not  erase  the  blocking-in. 


BOOK  V.l 


OPTIONAL  COLOR  EXERCISE. 


139 


Unit  and  Rosette.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  right  half  draw  a  unit,  suitable  for  the 
upright  oblong  on  p.  12,  modified  by  some  of  the  curves  found  in  the  leaves  of 
the  branch  or  spray;  below  it,  draw  a  rosette,  using  the  flower  as  a  motive. 

D.  B.,  page   12. — Drawing  the  Branch  or  Spray  and  the  Panel. 


Study  for  Character  of  Lines  by  Pupils. 

—  Notice  that  you  cannot  in  your  natural  branch 
see  all  the  edge  of  each  leaf  distinctly.  This 
can  be  expressed  in  your  drawing,  as  in  the 
illustration,  by  broken  lines  and  lines  of  various 
thickness.  If  your  leaves  are  toothed,  do  not  try 
to  draw  every  tooth,  —  merely  indicate  a  tooth 
now  and  then. 

Drawing.  —  Follow  the  directions  for  Pracitce.  Erase  the 
blocking-in  lines  where  necessary.  Finish  the  branch 
in  gray  lines  varying  in  thickness,  making  them  darker 
on  the  side  away  from  the  light.  Finish  the  panel  and 
design  in  broad,  gray  lines. 


Suggested  for  a  Panel. 


OPTIONAL    COLOR    EXERCISE. 

The  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary  colors  have  been  given  and  their 
use  in  flat  washes.  Practice  in  the  use  of  the  primary  colors  in  graded 
washes  have  been  given.  In  these  graded  washes,  tints  of  the  pri- 
maries were  brought  out,  a  tint  of  any  color  being  a  tone  of  the  color 
lighter  than  the  standard. 

It  is  now  proposed  to  introduce  shades  of  color,  a  shade  of  any 
color  being  a  tone  of  any  color  darker  than  the  standard,  and  being 
produced  by  the  mixture  of  black  with  that  color. 

The  term  tone  of  color  is  applied  either  to  a  tint  or  to  a  shade. 

D.  J3.,  page  R.— Drawing  and  Coloring  a  Design. 


Drawing  and  Coloring.  —  Draw  the  panel  which  you  drew  on  page  12.     Color  the 
panel  with  a  tertiary  color  using  three  shades. 


I4O  TEACHER'S   MANUAL.  [BOOK  v. 


LANGUAGE. 

TEACHERS  should  continue  to  give  pupils  practice  in  the  use  of  the 
terms  and  names  on  pages  28,  54,  88,  and  118  as  well  as  in  the  use 
of  those  given  below,  always  requiring  complete  sentences 

Names  of  Models,  Objects,  and  Details. 

SQUARE  PYRAMID;  vertex,  base,  altitude;  slant  height. 
HEXAGONAL  PRISM  ;  base,  hexagon,  regular  hexagon. 
COLOR;  tint,  shade;  tone. 

Terms  of  Construction. 

WORKING-DRAWING;  to  read  a  working-drawing. 
LINES;  dot-and-dash  lines,  figured  dimension  lines. 
CONSTRUCTIVE  DESIGN;  fitness  to  purpose,  beauty  of  form 

Terms  of  Representation. 

LEVEL  OF  THE  EYE;  L.  of  E. 
VANISHING  POINT  ;  V.  P.  i  ;  V.  P.  2. 
SHADE;  light,  dark. 
EFFECT;  picturesque. 

Terms  of  Decoration. 

ORNAMENT  ;  Fleur-de-lis. 
MODIFICATION  OF  UNITS;  division,  band. 
ARRANGEMENT;  panel;  unit  and  rosette. 
EFFECT;  Harmony. 


APPENDIX. 


COLOR. 

Color  having  been  accepted  by  leading  educators  as  an  important 
means  of  acquainting  a  child  with  his  surroundings  and  of  promoting 
his  mental  development,  some  provision  should  be  made  in  all  schools 
for  its  study.  It  is  a  subject,  however,  which  is  in  its  infancy  in  general 
education;  all  knowledge  of  color  now  possessed  has  been  gained  in 
the  main  either  incidentally  or  by  special  study,  and  not  from  direct 
instruction  in  the  school-room  as  a  part  of  regular  work.  For  the  present, 
therefore,  color-work  in  schools  must  be  considered  as  experimental 
and  tentative.  The  suggestions  offered  here,  as  an  aid  to  such  experimental 
work,  are  based  'on  the  most  advanced  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  upon  artistic  methods  of  work. 

Lessons  in  color  should  be  given  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the 
knowledge  of  color  to  be  gained  and  the  pleasure  and  profit  to  be  derived 
therefrom,  but  also  as  a  means  to  be  used  in  developing  ideas  of  form; 
for  color  adds  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of  form,  and  is  therefore  a  great 
aid  in  leading  to  an  appreciation  of  form,  especially  among  children. 
Hence,  a  slight  provision  for  the  introduction  of  color  has  been  made 
in  the  Books  and  Manual  of  this  course  in  Form  study  and  Drawing.  The 
suggestions  added  in  this  Appendix  are  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish 
and  are  able  to  give  more  time  to  the  development  of  color-work. 

Color-lessons  should  not  be  given  at  random.  They  should  have  an 
orderly  succession  and  should  have  a  two-fold  purpose:  i.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  color-sense  ;  2.  The  development  of  the  power  of  expressing 
with  brushes  and  paints,  or  other  color  materials,  the  color-impressions  made 
upon  the  brain. 

The  ability  to  receive  color-impressions  and  the  ability  to  express  them, 
are  so  nearly  related  that  'it  is  hardly  possible  to  dissociate  them  in 
teaching  color ;  but  these  two,  Cultivation  of  the  color-sense  and  Expres- 
sion of  ideas  by  color,  should  be  considered  separately  in  devising  a  plan 

for  color-lessons. 

141 


142  ^  APPENDIX. 

The  Color-Sense. —  In  all  schemes  for  color-lessons,  the  color-sense 
should  be  made  the  starting  point.  Care  should  be  taken  that  a  color, 
impression  or  sensation  should  always  precede  the  name  of  the  color. 
To  this  end,  exercises  in  matching  colors  of  objects  should  be  given 
before  color-names  are  given.  Provision  has  been  made  for  such  exercises 
in  the  Color  Chart  and  Cards  for  the  Primary  Education  of  the  Color-Sense 
by  Dr.  Hugo  Magnus  and  Dr.  B.  Joy  Jeffries ;  published  by  the  Prang 
Educational  Company. 

In  the  Manual  for  this  chart  Dr.  Jeffries  says :  "  The  systematic 
education  of  the  color-sense  has  therefore  in  view  the  teaching  of  children 
by  direct  observation  and  the  awakening  in  them  a  perception  of  the 
principal  colors,  as  also  their  relation  to  light  and  shade." 

In  an  article  on  Color  names,  Color-Blindness,  and  the  Education  of  the 
Color-Sense  in  our  Schools,  published  in  Education,  March,  1872,  Dr. 
Jeffries  further  says  :  — 

"  Colors  must  be  taught,  and  not  simply  the  color-names  of  colored  objects.  A 
blind  child  will  give  the  name  of  the  color  of  grass,  trees,  apples,  bananas,  bricks, 
its  companion's  clothes,  and  perhaps  even  hundreds  of  objects  the  color-name  of 
which  it  has  learned.  So  also  the  color-blind  boy  will  do  the  same.  It  is  one 
thing  to  learn  the  color-name  connected  with  a  remembered  object,  and  a  very 
different  thing  to  connect  the  right  name  with  the  sensation  a  green  color  arouses. 
Here  has  been  the  mistake,  which  object-teaching  has  rather  fostered  than 
corrected." 

"  Any  method  must  be  systematic  and  thorough,  commencing  at  the  very  bottom. 
How  little  was  accomplished  in  educating  the  ear,  the  voice,  and  the  sense  of 
form  for  the  eye,  till  correct  principles  were  understood  and  acted  on.  Nothing 
can  be  accomplished  in  color-teaching  till  the  mistakes  of  the  past  are  understood, 
admitted,  and  corrected.  The  very  means  adopted  have  but  helped  to  blind  the 
teacher  and  the  educator  in  the  belief  that  colors  were  being  taught,  when,  in 
reality,  nothing  but  names  associated  with  certain  objects  were  being  remembered. 
The  color-blind  boy  can,  as  I  have  seen,  point  out  the  colors  in  the  charts  hereto- 
fore used,  as  well  as  the  normal-eyed.  A  certain  spot  in  a  certain  position  on  a 
large  card  has  a  name  attached  to  it  which  he  remembers,  and  this  is  all  he 
has  learned.  It  is  very  true  that  many  a  teacher,  disgusted  with  the  charts, 
blocks,  etc.,  placed  in  her  hands,  has  discarded  them  all,  and  gathered  together 
larger  or  smaller  collections  of  colored  paper,  worsted,  ribbons,  etc. ;  but  no 
exercise  with  these  has  revealed  the  characteristic  mistakes  of  the  color-blind  boys 
she  has  taught.  I  have  detected  color-blindness  among  the  best-taught  classes* 


COLOR.  143 

I  have  witnessed  the  best  color-teaching,  and  there  was  really  nothing  in  it  which 
would  inevitably  detect  a  defect  of  the  color-sense.  It  would  not  have  rtatonished 
me  at  all  to  have  found,  on  trial,  one  of  the  exhibited  boys  color-blind.  I  found 
in  a  factory  a  color-blind  man  engaged  in  cutting  up  colored  board  into  cards. 
His  fellow-workmen  would  not,  of  course,  admit  his  defect,  but  his  employer  had 
experienced  a  'destruction  of  stock,'  and  could  appreciate  the  characteristic 
mistakes  he  showed  with  Holmgren's  test,  etc.  It  is  not  expected  that  this 
idea  of  the  need  of  connecting  a  name  with  a  sensation  will  be  received  at  once, 
as  it  seems  so  to  militate  against  every-day  knowledge.  It  will,  however,  gradually 
show  itself  in  the  systematic  color-teaching  which  is  here  argued  for.  Practical 
illustrations  in  our  schools  would  much  more  readily  prove  this  statement." 

The  Names  of  Colors.  —  Only  those  names  which  are  in  common  use 
should  be  given  to  primary  children.  Yellow,  red,  blue,  orange,  green, 
violet,  purple,  brown,  gray,  crimson,  are  quite  sufficient  for  them. 

The  colored  objects,  whether  colored  cards,  paper,  worsted,  or  any  other 
material,  from  which  these  color-names  are  learned,  should  be  those  which 
are  known  as  standard  colors.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  in 
selecting  material  for  these  lessons. 

Tints,  Shades,  Tones,  Scales.  —  The  children  can  also  learn  the 
tints  and  shades  of  these  colors,  and  can  learn  to  arrange  them  in  scales 
of  color. 

Tints  are  those  tones  of  a  color  lighter  then  standard  color. 

Shades  are  those  tones  of  a  color  darker  than  the  standard  color,  obtained 
by  mixing  black  with  the  standard  color. 

A  scale  of  any  color  is  made  by  arranging  its  tints,  standard,  and  shades 
in  successive  order  from  light  to  dark  or  from  dark  to  light. 

A  dulled  scale  is  made  in  mixing  gray  with  all  the  tones  of  the  scale. 

Paints.  —  While  the  children  are  receiving  color-sensations,  and  learning 
color-names  by  the  study  of  colored  objects,  they  can  also  begin  to  produce 
color-effects  by  the  use  of  paints. 

Beginning  with  yellow,  red,  and  blue,  they  can  learn,  by  mixing  these  colors, 
the  results  produced. 

YELLOW  and   RED,  mixed,  make   ORANGE. 
YELLOW  and  BLUE,     "  "      GREEN. 

RED  and   BLUE,  "      PURPLE. 

The  three  mixed  in  varying  quantities  produce  browns  and  grays. 


144  APPENDIX. 

• 

At  the  same  time,  the  children  may  try  to  make  with  the  paints,  colored 
pictures  of  colored  objects,  learning  in  the  process  not  only  color,  but  also 
something  of  the  appearance  of  form.  The  objects  given  for  this  purpose 
should  be  carefully  selected  as  to  simplicity  of  form  and  color. 

As  the  children  learn  to  perceive  different  tints  and  shades  of  color  in 
scales  of  color  presented  to  them,  they  will  also  begin  to  discern  the  tints 
and  shades  of  color  produced  on  an  object  by  light  and  shade,  and  will 
represent  them  in  their  color-work. 

How  to  use  Colors  and  Brushes.  —  The  following  directions  for 
working  with  water-colors  are  taken  from  Prang's  Color  Boxes,  and  are 
given  here  for  the  guidance  of  teachers. 

As  to  Colors.  —  With  a  brush  full  of  clean  water  obtain  the  full  strength  of 
color  from  the  cake,  and  then  transfer  it  to  the  spaces  in  the  cover  of  the  box  as 
to  a  palette.  Add  color  or  water  as  strength  or  delicacy  of  tint  is  required. 

Rarely  mix  more  than  three  colors,  and  do  the  mixing  upon  the  palette  and  not 
upon  the  cakes.  This  is  best  practice  at  first,  thojigh  after  obtaining  a  good 
knowledge  of  color,  and  skill  in  handling,  it  is  sometimes  better  to  work  directly 
from  the  cake,  mixing  in  the  brush. 

As  to  Brushes.  —  Be  careful  to  use  clean  water,  that  is,  water  not  charged 
with  much  color  by  previous  mixing;  and  always  put  the  brushes  and  box  away 
quite  clean. 

A  hollow  sponge  held  in  the  left  hand  is  useful  to  remove  superfluous  color 
from  the  brush,  thus  keeping  the  water  clean. 

Do  not  leave  brushes  in  the  water  or  put  them  in  the  mouth.  When  ready  to 
put  the  brush  away,  wash  it  thoroughly  in  clean  water,  and  give  it  a  quick  shake ; 
this  removes  the  water,  while  bringing  the  brush  to  a  point  and  preserving  its 
shape. 

As  to  Working.  —  Work  from  the  left  to  the  right,  and  from  the  top 
downward.  Do  not  let  the  surface  of  the  paper  lie  flat,  but  slope  the  lower  part 
toward  you. 

Keep  the  brush  full  of  color,  and  work  generally  with  the  side  of  the  brush, 
using  the  point  only  for  lines.  Surplus  color  can  be  removed,  if  taken  up  quickly, 
by  using  a  nearly  dry  brush,  blotting-paper,  or  a  soft  rag. 

Classification  of  Color.  —  As  study  in  color  progresses,  a  color 
nomenclature,  based  on  the  classification  of  color,  becomes  necessary.  The 
scientist  bases  his  classification  on  the  study  of  the  spectrum;  the  artist, 
on  color  effects  produced  by  pigments. 


COLOR.  ^  145 

Spectrum  Colors.  —  A  beam  of  light,  passing  through  a  glass  prism, 
is  refracted  and  decomposed,  and  when  projected  on  a  white  screen  is  seen 
as  a  beautiful  band  of  rainbow  colors.  This  band  is  called  the  solar  spectrum. 
The  colors  are  so  beautifully  blended  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  determine 
where  one  ends  and  another  begins.  But  the  principal  colors  in  the  spec- 
t,  am  are  generally  spoken  of  as  seven:  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
i.idigo,  and  violet.  The  latest  researches  of  science  show  that  red,  green, 
and  violet  are  the  Primary  colors  in  the  spectrum,  —  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  the  colors  by  the  combination  of  which  the  other  colors  of  the  spec- 
trum may  be  produced.1 

In  speaking  of  the  colors  of  the  spectrum,  then,  red,  green,  and  violet, 
must  be  considered  as  Primary  colors. 

Pigment  Colors.  —  But,  in  -the  use  of  such  pigment  colors  as  are  now 
attainable,  the  mixing  of  colors  does  not  produce  the  results  reached  by 
the  combinations  of  the  colors  of  the  spectrum.  The  classification  of  the 
pigment-colors  therefore  for  the  present  at  least,  must  differ  from  that 
adopted  for  the  spectrum-colors.  In  pigment  colors,  yellow,  red,  and  blue 
are  considered  as  Primary  colors.  By  the  combination  of  these  Primary 
colors  the  Secondary  colors,  orange,  green,  and  purple  are  produced,  as  has 
been  already  stated. 

By  the  combination  of  Secondaries,  Tertitaies  are  Producted.  Each  Tertiary 
contains  all  the  Primary  colors,  with  a  double  portion  of  one  of  them. 

Secondaries.  Tertiaries. 

ORANGE  )  (  Citrine  or  Orange-green,  named  the  Yellow  Tertiary,  as  it 

and       >  make  < 
GREEN    j  f      contains  red,  blue,  and  a  double  portion  of  Yellow. 

ORANGE  )  (  Russet    or  Orange-purple,  named  the   Red  Tertiary,  as    it 

and       >  make  <  .  .       .     ,.  .         r  ~    ,• 

PURPLE  j  r      contams  yellow,  blue,  and  a  double  portion  of  Red. 

PURPLE   ^  (  Olive  or  Purple-green,  named  the  Blue  Tertiary,  as  it  con- 

GREEN    )          *  \     tains  yellow>  red'  and  a  d°uble  portion  of  Blue. 

There  is  in  infinite  variety  of  colors  compounded  from  those  mentioned, 
of  which  some  are  named  and  some  unnamed.  These  must  be  left  for  more 
advanced  study. 

1  Those  desirous  of  investigating  the  subject  for  themselves  will  find  some  simple,  but  very 
interesting  experiments  in  the  combinations  of  the  primary  spectrum  colors  in  No.  i  of  Appleton's 
Experimental  Science  Series  for  Beginners,  Light,  by  Alfred  M.  Mayer  and  Charles  Barnard. 


146  APPENDIX. 

Harmony  of  Color.  —  The  theories  of  the  harmony  of  color,  at 
present  accepted,  are  based  on  the  classification  given  above  of  pigment 
colors. 

Each  Primary  harmonizes  with  its  Complementary,  which  is  that  Secondary 
which  contains  the  other  two  Primaries. 

Primary.  Secondary.  The  other  two  Primaries. 

YELLOW   harmonizes  with  PURPLE  made  of    RED  and  BLUE. 
RED  "  "     GREEN        "       "    YELLOW  and  BLUE. 

BLUE  "  "     ORANGE     "       "     YELLOW  and  RED. 

The  Secondaries  and  Tertiaries  harmonize  after  the  same  law. 

If  a  Tertiary-color  is  desired,  harmonizing  with  a  given  Secondary,  orange 
for  example,  recall  the  Primary  with  which  orange  harmonizes,  which  is  blue : 
then  the  blue  Tertiary,  purple-green,  will  harmonize  with  orange.  As  red 
harmonizes  with  green,  the  red  Tertiary,  russet  or  orange-purple,  will 
harmonize  with  green.  As  yellow  harmonizes  with  purple,  the  yellow 
Tertiary,  citrine  or  orange-green,  will  harmonize  with  purple. 

The  above  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  — 

Yellow,     Red,         Blue,         Primaries. 
Purple,     Green,     Orange,     Secondaries. 
Citrine,     Russet,     Olive,         Tertiaries. 

f  Strong  contrast  with  Yellow. 

PURPLE -j  Subdued      "          "     Citrine. 

[  In  harmony  with  both. 

f  Strong  contrast  with  Red. 

GREEN        -j  Subdued      "         "     Russet. 

[  In  harmony  with  both. 

f  Strong  contrast  with  Blue. 
ORANGE  ... ....-{  Subdued      "         "     Olive. 

[  In  harmony  with  both. 

It  will  be  seen  that  harmony  between  Secondaries  and  Tertiaries  is 
more  subtle  and  delicate  than  between  Primaries  and  Secondaries  ;  as,  for 
example,  Green  and  Russet  in  combination  are  more  pleasing  to  the  eye 
and  less  crude  in  effect  then  Red  and  Green.  Soft  and  delicate  Grays  add 
to  the  harmony  of  a  picture ;  and  tints  of  the  Primaries  in  combination  are 
more  pleasing  than  the  colors  in  their  full  strength. 


COLOR.  147 

A  few  simple  Rules.  —  The  most  pleasing  harmonies  include  the 
three  Primary  colors.  (In  these  harmonies,  unless  the  aim  is  for  a  scale 
of  color,  there  is  the  least  of  yellow,  more  of  red,  and  the  most  of  blue. 
See  pp.  27,  45,  75,  105.) 

Better  effects  are  produced,  therefore,  by  the  use  of  a  Primary  and  a 
Tertiary  than  by  the  use  of  two  primaries. 

If  combinations  of  a  primary  and  a  secondary  are  attempted,  better 
results  are  generally  reached  by  the  use  of  tints  and  shades,  or  dulled  colors 
(that  is,  mixed  with  gray)  than  with  the  standards. 

These  are  the  general  principles  on  which  the  harmony  of  color  is  based. 
But  in  complete  harmony,  not  only  the  colors  themselves,  but  also  the 
amount,  balance,  and  quality  of  color  must  be  taken  into  account.  Into  this 
broader  field  we  cannot  enter  now. 

Color  Combinations.    Practical  Points  in  School  Work.  —  The 

subject  of  Decoration  calls  especially  for  a  knowledge  of  harmony  of  color. 
The  study  of  Decoration  begins  in  the  primary  schools  with  the  attempt  to 
make  pleasing  arrangements  with  solids,  tablets,  and  colored  paper.  As 
soon  as  the  element  of  color  enters,  training  in  the  harmony  of  color 
should  begin.  The  training  at  this  early  stage  should  be  rather  negative 
than  positive  ;  statements  as  to  harmony  of  the  different  Primaries,  Secondaries, 
and  Tertiaries  are  not  necessary. 

But  inharmonious  combinations  should  be  made  impossible  by  the 
observance  of  the  following  rules  by  the  teacher. 

In  choosing  colored  papers  for  use  in  the  school-room,  be  careful  first 
to  get  Standard  colors  ;  if  you  can,  add  to  these,  tints  and  shades  of  the 
various  colors,  so  that  scales  of  colors  can  be  made. 

At  first,  call  for  arrangements  in  standard  colors,  only  one  color  to  be 
used  in  any  one  arrangement  —  then  for  arrangements  in  tints,  only  one 
tint  to  be  used  in  any  one  arrangement  —  then  for  arrangements  in  shades, 
only  one  shade  to  be  used  in  any  one  arrangement. 

Latter,  when  combinations  are  made,  let  them  be — 

f  Of   two    tints   of   the   same   color. 
'I-'  {  Of  two  shades  "      " 

f  Of  a  standard  with  a  neutral  gray. 
(2.)  \  Of  a  tint  "    "        " 

[  Of  a  shade          "    " 


148  APPENDIX. 

Do  not  call  for  or  allow  any  combinations  of  (i)  standard  Primaries, 
(2)  of  Secondaries,  (3)  of  Primaries  and  Secondaries. 

If  an  object  is  represented  by  colored  papers,  do  not  allow  any  combina- 
tion of  two  colors  that  would  not  be  pleasing  and  suitable  in  the  object. 

If  these  rules  are  followed,  the  children  will  receive  an  unconscious 
training  in  the  harmony  of  color;  discords  of  color  will  seem  glaring  to 
them.  In  imitation,  they  will  carry  out  harmony  in  their  work  with,  the 
brush. 

To  more  advanced  pupils,  harmony  of  color  can  be  taught  on  the 
classification  given  above,. 


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